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ILLUSTRATED   TEXT-BOOKS   OF  ART 
EDUCATION 

EDITED  BY  EDWARD  J.  POYNTER,  R.A. 

ARCHITECTURE 
GOTHIC    AND     RENAISSANCE 

BY    T.   ROGER    SMITH,  F.R.I.B.A. 


Now  in  course  of  Publicatmi. 
A    NEW   SERIES 

OF 

ILLUSTRATED     TEXT- BOOKS 

OK 

ART     EDUCATION, 

EDITED    BY    EDWARD    J.    POYNTER,  R.A. 

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/^^ 


THE  CERTOSA,  XEAR  PAVIA.     From  the  Cloisters. 
Begun  by  Marco  di  Cajipione,  a.d.  1396 


LP.  114. 


TEXT-BOOK  OF  ART  EDUCATIOy,   EDITED   B] 
EDWARD  J.   FOYNTER,    R.A. 

lARCHITECTURE 

gothic  and   renaissance. 

BY  T.   ROGER    SMITH,/ F.R.I.B.A. 

//  ' 

Occasional  Lecturer  on  Architecture  at  University  College,  London 


NEW  YORK 
SCRIBNER  AND  WELFORD 

LONDON 

SAMPSON    LOW,    I^IARSTON,   SEARLE,   &   RIVIXGTON 

CROWX    BUILDINGS,    i88,    FLEET    STREET 
1880 


(All  rights  reserved.) 


LONDON  :    R.    CLAY,    SONS.    AND   TAYLOE. 
BREAD  STREET  HILL.    E.C. 


PEEFACE. 


THE  history,  the  features,  and  the  most  famous 
examples  of  European  architecture,  daring  a  pei'iod 
extending  from  the  rise  of  the  Gothic,  or  pointed,  style 
in  the  twelfth  century  to  the  general  depression  which 
overtook  the  Renaissance  style  at  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth, form  the  subject  of  this  little  volume.  I  have 
endeavoured  to  adopt  as  free  and  simple  a  mode  of  treat- 
ment as  is  compatible  with  the  accurate  statement  of  at 
least  the  outlines  of  so  very  technical  a  subject. 

Though  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  many  professional  students 
of  architecture  will  find  this  hand-book  serviceable  to 
them  in  their  elementary  studies,  it  has  been  my  principal 
endeavour  to  adapt  it  to  the  requii'ements  of  those 
who  are  p'epai-ing  for  the  professional  pursuit  of  the 
sister  arts,  and  of  that  large  and  happily  increasing  number 
of  students  who  pursue  the  fine  arts  as  a  necessary  part 
of  a  compltte    liberal    education,  and  who    know  that  a 


Vlll  rilEFACE. 

solid  and  comprehensive  acquaintance  with  art,  espe- 
cially if  joined  to  some  skill  in  the  use  of  the  pencil, 
the  brush,  the  modelling  tool,  or  the  etching  needle,  will 
open  sources  of  pleasure  and  interest  of  the  most  refined 
description. 

The  broad  facts  of  all  art  history ;  the  principles  which 
underlie  each  of  the  fine  arts  ;  and  the  most  precious  or 
most  noteworthy  examples  of  each,  ought  to  be  familiar 
to  every  art  student,  whatever  special  branch  he  may 
follow.  Beyond  these  limits  I  have  not  attempted  to 
carry  this  account  of  Gothic  and  Kenaissance  architec- 
ture ;  within  them  I  have  endeavoured  to  make  the  work 
as  complete  as  the  space  at  my  disposal  permitted. 

Some  portions  of  the  text  formed  part  of  two  courses 
of  lectures  delivered  before  the  students  of  the  School 
of  Military  Engineering  at  Chatham,  and  are  introduced 
here  by  the  kind  permission  of  Sir  John  Stokes.  Many 
of  the  descriptive  and  critical  remarks  are  transcripts  of 
notes  made  by  myself,  almost  under  the  shadow  of  the 
buildings  to  which  they  refer.  It  would,  however,  have 
been  impossible  to  give  a  condensed  view  of  so  ex- 
tended a  subject  had  not  every  part  of  it  been  treated 
at  much  greater  length  by  previous  writers.  The  number 
and  variety  of  the  books  consulted  renders  it  impossible 
to  make  any  other  acknowledgment  here  than  this  general 
recognition  of  my  indebtedness  to  their  authors. 

T.  R.  S. 


C  0  N  T  E  N  T  S. 

PACE 

ILLUSTEATED  GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS  .  xv  to  xxxix 

CHAPTER  L 
IXTEODUCTIOX 1 

CHAPTER  II. 
THE  BUILDIXGS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 6 

CHAPTER  HI. 
GOTHIC  AECBITECTUEE 21 

CHAPTER  1\'. 
GOTHIC  AECHITECTUEE  IX  EXGLAXD. 

Analysis    of     Buildings.       Plans.      A^'alls.       Towers   and 

Spires.     Gables.     Piers  and  Columus 28 

CHAPTER  V. 
GOTHIC  AECHITECTUEE  IX  EXGLAXD  {contimted). 

Aualj^sis  {continued).      Openinj^s.      Roofs.     Spires.     Orna- 
ments.    Stained  Glass.     Sculpture 45 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

VAUJi 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  WESTERX  EUROPE. 

1.  France,     Chronological  Sketch.     Analysis  of  Buildings. 

Plans.  Walls.  Towers  and  Gables.  Columns  and 
Piers.  Roofs  and  Vaults.  Openings.  Mouldings  and 
Ornaments.     Construction  and  Design CSJ 

2.  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands S7 

3.  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland 

CHAPTER  VII. 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  CENTRAL  AND  NORTHERN 
EUROPE. 

1.  Germany.  Chronological  Sketch.    Analysis  of  Buildings. 

Plans.  Walls.  Towers  and  Gables.  Roofs  and  Vaults. 
Openings.     Ornaments.     Construction  and  Design   .     .       9-3 

2.  Northern  Europe Ill 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE  IN  SOUTHERN  EUROPE. 

1.  Italy  and  Sicily.     Topographical  Sketch.     Northern 

Italy.  Central  Italy.  Southern  Italy.  Analysis 
of  Buildings.  Plans,  Walls,  Towers,  and  Columns. 
Openings  and  Arches.  Roofs  and  Vaults.  Mouldings 
and  Ornaments.     Construction  and  Design      .     .     .     .     112 

2.  Spain.     Chronological  Sketch 1-37 

3.  Portugal 142 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

Principles   of    Construction    and    Design.       Materials   and 

Construction ]  43 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  X. 


RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE. 

General  Yieav.      Analysis  of   Buildings.     Plans.     Walls 

and  Columns.     Openings.     Construction  and  Design     .     154 


CHAPTER  XI. 

RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE  IX  ITALY. 

rLOREN(jE.   Rome.    Venice.    Vicenza.   Verona,    Milan. 

Pavia.     Genoa.     Turin.     Naples.     Country  A^'illas  .    IGo 

CHAPTER  XII. 

RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  NORTHERN 
EUROPE. 

1.  France.     Chronological  Sketch 193 

2.  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands 206 

3.  Germany 210 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

RENAISSANCE     ARCHITECTURE     IN     GREAT     BRITAIN, 
SPAIN,  AND  PORTUGAL. 

1.  England.     Chronological  Sketch 214 

2.  Scotland 227 

3.  Spain  and  Portugal 229 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Certosa,  The,  near  Payia.    From  the  Cloisters       .     .    Frontispiece 
Saint  George.     Panel  from  the  Tomb  of  Cardinal 

Ajiboise  in  Roien  Cathedral Title  Page 

Glossary.    Forty  Engravings  of  Details xv  to  xxxix 

1.  AYest  Entrance,  Lichfield  Cathedral.     (1275.)       5 

2.  Ground  Plan  of  Peterborough  Cathedral.     (1118  to  1193.)    .  6 

3.  Tran.sverse  Section  of  the  Nave  (.if  Salisbury  Cathedral.  7 

4.  Choir  of  Worcester  Cathedral.    (Begun  1224.) 9 

5.  Nave  of  AYells  Cathedral.    (1206  to  1242.) 9 

6.  Ground  Plan  of  Westminster  Abbey 11 

7.  House  of  Jaques  Cceur  at  Bourges.    (Begun  1443.)     ....  15 

8.  Plan  of  AYar-wick  Castle.    (14th  and  15th  Centuries.)      .     .  IG 

9.  Palaces  on  THE  Grand  Canal,  Venice.    (14th  Century.)     .     .  18 

10.  Well  at  Eegensburg.    (15th  Century.) 20 

11.  Gothic  0RN.4.MEXT.    From  Sens  Cathedral  (Headplece)      .     .  21 

12.  Lincoln  Cathedral.     (Mostly  Early  English.) 35 

13.  St.  Pierre,  Caen,  Tower  and  Spire.    (Spire,  13C2.)      ....  37 

14.  House  at  Chester.    (16th  Century.) 3S 

15.  Houses  at  Lisieux,  France.     (16th  Century.) 41 

16.  Lancet  Window.     (12th  Century.) 46 

17.  Two-light  Window.    (13th  Century.) 47 

18.  Geometrical  Tracery.    (14th  Century.) 48 

19.  Triforium  Arcade,  Westminster  Abbey.    (1269.) 49 

20.  EosE  Window  from  the  Transept  of  Lincoln  Cathedral.  50 

21.  Perpendiculak  Window -51 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTEATIOXS.  xill 

PAGK 

■22.  KooF  OF  Haix  at  Eltham  Palace.    (15th  C'ENTinT.)    ....  53 

i'3.  HEifRT  YII.'.s  Chapel.    (1503-1512.) 57 

24.  Spike  of  St.  Mart  Magdalente,  Warbots,  Lincoln.shiue  ...  59 

25.  Decorated  Spiee.    All  Saixts'  Chcech,  Oakham 60 

26.  Earlt  Aech  in  Eeceding  Planes 62 

27.  Akch  in  Eeceding  Planes  Moulded 62 

2S.  Doorway,  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge.    (15th  Ce;>t.)  63 

29.  Stained  Glass  Window  from  Chaetres  Cathedral     ....  65 

3<"t.  ScrLPTCRE  FROM  Chapter  Hor.«E,  "VTestminster  Abbey     ...  67 

31.  Church  at  Fonteyrault.     (Begun  1125.) 70 

32.  Doorway  at  Loches,  France.    (1150.) 72 

33.  XoTRE  Dame,  Paris,  West  Front.    (1214.) 74 

34.  Plan  of  Asiiens  Cathedral.    (1220-1272.) 76 

35.  Ajiiens  Cathedral,  TTest  Front.    (1220-1272.J 78 

36.  Piers  and  Superstructure.  Eheims  Cathedral.     (1211-1240.)  .  SO 

37.  Capital  from  St.  Nicholas,  Blois,  France.      (13th  Cextury.)  84 
3S.  Beauyais  Cathedral,  Interior.    (1225-1537.) 86 

39.  The  Town  Hall  of  Middleburgh.    (1518.) 89 

40.  Tower  at  Ghent.     (Begun  1183.) 90 

41.  Abbey  Church  of  Arnstein.     (12th  and  13th  Cextueies.)   .     .    94 

42.  Church  at  Andernach.    (Early  13th  Century.) 96 

43.  ChurchcfSt.  Barbara  AT  KuTTENBERG.  East  End.  (1358-1548.)    99 

44.  Double  Church  at  Schwartz-Eheindoeff.     Section.     (1158.)  101 

45.  Double  Church  at  Schwaetz-Eheindoeff.    (1158.)    ...       102 

46.  Cologne  Cathedral.    Ground  Plan.     (Begun  1248.)  ....  104 

47.  Western  Doorway  of  Church  at  Thann.     (14th  Century  )    .  106 

48.  Church  of  St.  Catherine  at  Oppenheim.    (1262  to  1439.)     .    .  107 

49.  St.  Sebald's  Church  at  Nuremberg.    The  Bride's  Doorway  .  109 

50.  Palace  of  the  Jurisconsults  at  Cremona 117 

51.  Cathedral  at  Florexce.    With  Giotto's  Campanile  ....  121 

52.  Cathedral  at  Siena.  We.st  Front  and  Campanile 123 

53.  Cathedral  AT  Ortietj.     (Begun  1290;  Facade,  1310.)      .     .     .  125 

54.  Ogival  Window-head 129 

55.  Tracery  in  Window-head,  from  "S'enice 130 


XIV  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

I'AGE 

56.  WlN-DOW  FROM  TlVOLI 134 

57.  Italian  Gothic  "Wixdotv,  •with  Tracery  ix  Head 136 

58.  Cathedral  at  Toledo.    Ixterioe.    (Begcx  1227.) 139 

59.  The  Giralda  at  Setille.     (Begux  ix  1196  ;  Fixished  ix  1568.)  141 

60.  DooR-wAT  FROM  Church  AT  Bataxha.  (Begux1385.) 151 

61.  Strozzi  Palace  at  Florexck.     (Begcx  1489.) 169 

62.  Part  of  the  Loggia  del  CoxsiGLio  at  Veroxa 171 

63.  The  Pandolfixi  Palace,  Floeexce.     Desigxed  bt  Eaphael     .  173 

64.  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.    Ixterior.    (1506-1661.) 177 

65.  Moxumext  by  Saxsovixo,  ix  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo,  Rome  .     .179 

66.  Palazzo  Giraud,  Rome.    By  Bramaxte.     (1506.) 180 

67.  The  Chuech  of  St.  Fraxcesco,  at  Ferrara.    Ixterior        .    .  183 

68.  Italiax  Shell  Ohxamext 184 

69.  The  Church  OF  THE  Redexto RE,  Yexice.     (1576.) 186 

70.  Certosa  xear  Payia.    Part  of  "West  Fhoxt.     (Begux  1473.)  .  189 
70a.  Early  Rexaissaxce  Corbel .  192 

71.  WixDO-w  from  a  House  at  Orleaxs.     (Early  16th  Cextury.)  .  195 

72.  Capital  FROM  THE  House  OF  Fraxci.s  I.,  Orleaxs.     (1540.)    .     .  197 

73.  Pavillox  Richelieu  of  the  Lolttre,  Paris 199 

74.  Part  of  the  Tuileries,  Paris.    (Begux  1564) 201 

75.  Capit.vl  froji  Deloejie's  work  at  the  Louvee 202 

76.  Hotel  des  Ixvalides,  Paris 204 

77.  "\VlXD0-W  FROM  COLMAR.     (1575.) 208 

78.  Zeughaus,  Daxtzic.     (1605.) 209 

79.  CouxciL-HousE  at  Leydex.     (1599.)      .         211 

80.  Quadrangle   of  the    Castle    of    Schalabueg   ...         .     .  213 

81.  HoLLAXD  House,  Kexsixgtox.    (1607.) 216 

82.  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Loxdox.    (1675 — 1710.) 220 

83.  Houses  at  Chester.    (16th  Cextuey.) 225 

84.  The  Alcazar  at  Toledo.     (Begux  1568.)       231 


GLOSSARY    OF   TECHNICAL   WORDS. 

Abacus. — The  upper  portion  of  the  capital  of  a  column,  upon  -which 
the  weight  to  be  carried  rests. 

Aisle  (Lat.  ala). — The  side  subdivision  in  a  church  ;  occasionally  all 
the  subdivisions,  including  the  nave,  are  called  aisles. 

Apse. — A  semicircular  or  polygonal  termination  to,  or  projection 
from,  a  church  or  other  public  building. 

Akcade.—  a  range  of  arches,  supported  on  piers  or  columns. 

Auch. — A  construction  of  wedge-shaped  blocks  of  stone,  or  of  bricks, 
of  a  curved  outline,  and  spanning  an  open  space.  The  principal 
forms  of  arch  in  use  are  Semicircular ;  Acutely-pointed,  or  Lancet  ; 
Equilateral,  or  Less  Acutely-pointed  ;  Four-centred,  or  Depressed 
Tudor  ;  Three-centred,  or  Elliptic  ;  Ogival ;  Segmental ;  and 
Stilted.     (Figs,  rt  to/.) 

Architeavk. — (1)  The  stone  which  in  Classic  and  Eenaissance  archi- 
tecture is  thrown  from  one  column  or  pilaster  to  the  next.  (2) 
The  moulding  which  in  the  same  styles  is  used  to  ornament  the 
margin  of  a  door  or  window  opening  or  arch. 

Ashlar. — Finelj'-wrought  masonry,  employed  for  the  facing  of  a  wall 
of  coarser  masonry  or  brick. 

Attic  (In  Renaissance  Architecture). — A  low  upper  story,  distinctly 
marked  in  the  architecture  of  the  building,  usually  surmounting 
an  order  ;  (2)  in  ordinary  building,  any  story  in  a  roof. 


Bailey  (from  vallum). — The  enclosure  of  the  courtyard  of  a  castle. 
Ball-flower. — An  ornament  representing  a  globular  bud,   placed 

usually  in  a  hollow  moulding. 
Balusteh. — A  species  of  small  column,  generally  of  curved  outline. 
Balustrade. — A  parapet  or  rail  formed  of  balusters. 


GOTHIC    AHCIIITECTURE, 


Fig.  a. — Semicircular  Arch. 


Fig.  /j.— Stilted  Arch. 


The  Semicircular  and  the  Stilted  Semicircular  Arch  were  the  only  arches 
in  use  till  the  introduction  of  the  Pointed  Arch.  Throughout  the  Early 
English,  Decorated,  aud  Perpendicular  periods  they  occur  as  exceptional 
features,  but  they  were  practically  superseded  after  the  close  of  the  12th  cent. 


Fig.  c. — Equilateral  Arch. 


Fig.  d.— Lancet  Arch. 


The  Lancet  Arch  was  characteristic  of  the  Early  English  period,  is  never 
found  earlier,  and  but  rarely  occurs  later.  The  Equilateral  Arch  was  the 
favourite  arch  of  the  architects  of  the  geometrical  Decorated,  but  is  not 
unfrequently  met  with  in  the  early  part  of  the  Perpendicular  period. 


F.G.  t'. — Ogival  Arch. 


Fig.  /. — Depressed  Tudor  Arch. 


The  Depressed  (or  Four-centred)  Tudor  Arch  is  characteristic  of  the  Per- 
pendicular period,  and  was  then  constantly  employed.  The  Ogival  Arch  is 
o->cnsionally  employed  late  in  that  period,  but  was  more  used  by  French  and 
Italian  architects  than  by  those  of  Great  Britain. 


7t 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS.  XVll 

Band. — A  flat  moulding  or  projecting  strip  of  stone. 

B.VRRET,-VAULTiNO. — See  Waggon-head  vaulting. 

Barge-board  (or  Verge-board). — An  inclined  and  pierced  or  orna- 
mented board  placed  along  the  edge  of  a  roof  when  it  overhangs 
a  gable  wall. 

Pasb.  —  (1)  The  foot  of  a  column  ;  (2)  sometimes  that  of  a  buttress 
or  wall. 


Fro.  g.— Base  of  Early  Ekglish  Shaft. 


Fig.  a.— Base  of  Perpendicclar  Shaft. 


Fig.  i.— Base  of  Decorated  Shaft. 


Basilica.— (1)  A  Roman  public  hall;  (2)  an  eaily  Christian  church, 
similar  to  a  Eomau  basilica  in  disposition . 
G    A  b 


XVIU  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE, 

Bastion  (ia  Fortification). — A  bold  projecting  mass  of   building,   or 

earthwork  thrown  out  beyond  the  general  line  of  a  wall. 
Battlement. — A  notched  or  indented  parapet. 

Bay. — One  of  the  compartments  in  a  building  which  is  made  up  of 
several  repetitions  of  the  same  group  of  features  ;  e.g.,  in  a  church 
the  space  from  one  column  of  the  nave  arcade  to  the  next  is  a 
bay. 

Bay-window. — A  window  projecting  outward  from  the  wall.  It  may 
be  rectangular  or  polygonal.  It  must  be  built  up  from  the  ground- 
If  thrown  out  above  the  ground  level,  a  projecting  window  is 
called  an  Oriel.     (See  Bow-window.) 

Bead. — A  small  moulding  of  circular  profile. 

Belfry. — A  chamber  fitted  to  receive  a  peal  of  bells. 

Belfry  Stage.  — The  story  of  a  tower  where  the  belfry  occurs.  Usually 
marked  by  large  open  arches  or  windows,  to  let  the  sound  escape. 

Bell  (of  a  capital). — Tlie  body  between  the  necking  and  the  abacus 
(which  see). 

Billett  Moulding. — A  moulding  consisting  of  a  group  of  small 
blocks  separated  by  spaces  about  equal  to  their  own  length. 

Blind  Story. — Triforium  (which  see). 

Boss. — A  projecting  mass  of  carving  placed  to  conceal  the  inter- 
section of  the  ribs  of  a  vault,  or  at  the  end  of  a  string  course 
which  it  is  desired  to  stop,  or  in  an  analogous  situation. 

Bow  Window. — Similar  to  a  Bay-window  (which  see),  but  circular  or 
segmental. 

Broach-spire. — A  spire  springing  from  a  tower  without  a  parapet  and 
with  pyramidal  features  at  the  feet  of  its  four  oblique  sides  (see 
Fig.  22)  to  connect  them  to  the  four  angles  of  the  tower. 

Beoachead  (spire). — Formed  as  above  described. 

Buttress. — A  projection  built  up  against  a  wall  to  create  additional 
strength  or  furnish  sujiport  (see  Flying  Buttress). 

Byzantine. — The  round-arched  Christian  architecture  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  wliich  had  its  origin  in  Byzantium  (Constantinople). 

Canopy. — (1)  An  ornamented  projection  over  doors,   windows,  &c.  ; 

(2)  a  covering  over  niches,  tombs,  &c. 
Campanile. — The  Italian  name  for  a  bell-tower. 


GLOSSARY    OF   TECHNICAL   WORDS, 


Fig  j. — Buttress. 


Capital. — The  head  of  a  column  or  pilaster  (Figs.  I  to  p). 

Cathedral. — A  church  which  Qontains  the  seat  of  a  bishop  ;  usual Ij' 

-   a  building  of  the  first  class. 
Certosa. — A  monastery  (or  church)  of  Carthusian  monks. 
Chamfer. — A  slight  strip  pared  off  from  a  sharp  angle. 
Chancel. — The  choir  or  eastern  part  of  a  church. 

Chantry  Chapel. — A  chapel  connected  with  a  monument  or  tomb 
^      in  which  masses  were  to  be  chanted.     This  was  usually  of  small 
size  and  very  rich. 

Chapel. — (1)  A  chamber  attached  to  a  church  and  opening  out  of  it, 
or  formed  within  it,  and  in  which  an  altar  was  placed ;  (2)  a 
small  detached  church. 

Chapter  House. — The  hall  of  assembly  of  the  chapter  (dean  and 
canons)  of  a  cathedral. 

b  2 


Fio.  n. — Later  Norman  Capital. 


Fio.  p  —Early  Frenth  Capital. 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS, 


XXI 


Chateau. — The  French  name  for  a  country  mansion. 

Chevron. — A  zig-zag  ornament. 

Chevet. — The  French  name  for  an  apse  when  surrounded  by  chapels  ; 

-    see  the  plan  of  Westminster  Abbey  (Fig.  6). 
Choir. — The  part  of  a  church  in  which  the  services  are  celebrated; 

usually,  but  not  always,  the  east  end  or  chancel.     In  a  Spanish 

church  the  choir  is  often  at  the  crossing. 
Clerestory. — The  upper  stoiy  or  row  of  windows  lighting  the  nave  of 

a  Gothic  church. 
Cloister. — A  covered  way  round  a  quadrangle  of  a  monastic  building. 
Clustered  (shafts). — Grouped  so  as  to  form  a  pier  of  some  mass  out 

of  several  small  shafts. 
Corbel. — A  projecting  stone  (or  timber)  supporting,  or  seeming  to 

suj)port,  a  weight  (Fig.  I'). 


Fig.  fc.— Early  Renaissance  Corbel. 


Corbelling. — A  series  of  mouldings  doing  the  same  duty  as  a  corbel ; 

a  row  of  corbels. 
Corbel  Table. — A  row  of  corbels  supporting  an  overhanging  parapet 

or  cornice. 


XXll  GOTHIC    AKCHITECTURE. 

Cor.TiLE  (Italian), — The  internal  arcaded  quadrangle  of  a  palace, 
mansion,  or  public  building. 

Column. — A  stone  or  marble  post,  divided  usually  into  base,  shaft, 
and  capital ;  distinguished  from  a  pier  by  the  shaft  being  cylindri- 
cal or  polygonal,  and  in  one,  or  at  most,  in  few  pieces. 

Cornice. — The  projecting  and  crowning  portion  of  an  order  (which 
see)  or  of  a  building,  or  of  a  stage  or  story  of  a  building. 

Course. — A  horizontal  layer  of  stones  in  the  masonry  of  a  building. 

Crocket. — A  tuft  of  leaves  arranged  in  a  formal  shape,  used  to  decorate 
ornamental  gables,  the  ribs  of  spires,  &c. 


Fig.  q. — Decorated  Crocket. 


Fic.  r. — PERrENDicuLAR  Crocket. 


Crossing. — The  intersection  (which  see)  in  a  church  or  cathedral. 

Cross  Vault. — A  vault  of  which  the  arched  surfaces  intersect  one 
another,  forming  a  groin  (which  see). 

Crypt,— The  basement  under  a  church  or  other  building  (almost  in- 
variably vaulted). 

Cusp, — The  projecting  point  thrown  out  to  form  the  leaf-shaped  forms 
or  foliations  in  the  heads  of  Gothic  windows,  and  in  tracery  and 
panels. 


Dec.  )  The  Gothic  architecture   of  the  fourteenth  century  in 

Decorated.  )      England,     Abbreviated  Dec. 

Detail, —The  minuter  features  of  a  design  or  building,  especially  its 
mouldings  and  carving. 


GLOSSARY   OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS. 


XXII 1 


Diaper  (Gothic). — An  uniform  pattern  cf  leaves  or  flowers  carved  or 
painted  on  the  surface  of  a  wall. 


Fig    s.  — Diaper  in  Spandrel,  from  Wesiminster  Abbey. 

Dogtooth. — A  sharply-poiated  ornament  in  a  hollow  moulding  which 

is  peculiar  to  Early  English  Gothic.     It  somewhat  resembles  a 

blunt  tooth. 
Dormer  Window. — A  window  pierced  through  a  sloping  roof  and 

placed  under  a  small  gable  or  roof  of  its  own. 
Dome. — A  cupola  or  spherical  convex  roof,  ordinarily  circular  on  plan. 
Domical  Vaulting. — Vaulting  in  which  a  series  of  small  domes  are 

employed  ;   in  contradistinction  to  a  waggon-head   vault,  or  an 

intersecting  vault. 


XXIV  GOTHIC   ARCUITECTUBE. 

Double  Tkacery. — Two  layers  of  tracery  one  behind  the  other  and 
with  a  clear  space  between. 

E.  E.  i  The    Gothic    architecture    of    England     in     the 

Early  English.  )      thirteenth  century.     Ahbreviatcd  E.  E. 
Eaves. — The  verge  or  edge  of  a  roof  overhanging  the  wall. 
Eaves-course. — A  moulding  carrying  the  eaves. 
Elevation. — (1)  A  geometrical  drawing    of  part  of  the  exterior  or 

interior  walls  of  a  building  ;  (2)  the  architectural  treatment  of  the 

exterior  or  interior  walls  of  a  building. 
Elizabethan.  —The  architecture  of  England  in,  and  for  some  time 

after,  the  reign  of  ILlizabeth. 
Embattled. — Finished  with  battlements,  or  in  imitation  of  battlements. 
Entablature  (in  Classic  and  Renaissance  architecture). — The  super- 
structure above  the  columns  where  an  order  is  employed.     It  is 

divided  into  the  architrave,  which  rests  on  the  columns,  the  frize, 

and  the  cornice. 
Enrichments. — The  carved  (or  coloured)  decorations  applied  to  tlie 

mouldings   or   other  features  of  an  architectural   design.      (See 

Mouldings.) 
Facade. — The  front  of  a  building  or  of  a  principal  part  of  a  building. 
Fan  Vault.  — The    vaulting    in    use   in    England   in   the   fifteenth 

century,  in  which  a  series  of  conoids  bearing  some  resemblance  to 

an  open  fan  are  employed. 
Fillet. — A  small  moulding  of  square  flat  section. 


Fig.  t. — Perpendicular  Finul. 


FiNiAL. — A  formally  arranged  bunch  of  foliage  or  other  similar  orna- 
nient  forming  the  top  of  a  pinnacle,  gablet,  or  other  ornamented 
feature  of  Gothic  architecture. 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS. 


Flamboyant  Style. — The  late  Gothic  architecture  of  France  at  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  so  called  from  the  occurrence  of 
flame-shaped  forms  in  the  tracery. 

Fleche. — A  name  adapted  from  the  French.  A  slender  spire,  mostly 
placed  on  a  roof ;  not  often  so  called  if  on  a  tower. 

Flying  Buttress. — A  buttress  used  to  steady  the  upper  and  inner 
walls  of  a  vaulted  building,  placed  at  some  distance  from  the 
wall  which  it  supports,  and  connected  with  it  by  an  arch. 


Fig.  v. — Flying  Buttress. 

Foil. — A  leaf-shaped  form  produced  by  adding  cusps  to  the  curved 

outline  of  a  window  head  or  piece  of  tracery. 
Foliatiox.  —The  decoration  of  an  opening,  or  of  tracery  by  means  of 

foils  ani  cusps. 
Fosse. — The  ditch  cf  a  fortress. 
FRANgois  I.  SrvL  . — ^The  early  Renaissance  architecture    of  France 

during  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 


XXVI  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

Frieze. — (1)  The  middle  member  of  a  Classic  or  Renaissance  enta- 
blature ;  this  was  often  sculptured  and  carved  ;  (2)  any  baud  of 
sculptured  ornament. 

Gable. — The  triangular-shaped  wall  carrying  the  end  of  a  roof. 

Gablet. — A  small  gable  (usually  ornamental  only). 

Gallery. — (1)    An  apartment  of  great  length  in  proportion  to    its 

width  ;  (2)  a  raised  floor  or  stage  in  a  building. 
Gargoyle. — A  projecting  waterspout,  usually  carved  in  stone,  more 

rarely  formed  of  metal. 
Geometi!ICAL. — The  architecture  of  the  earlier  part  of  the  decorated 

period  in  England. 
Grille, — A  grating  or  ornamental  railing  of  metal. 
Groin. — The  curved  line  which  is  made  by  the  meeting  of  the  surfaces 

of  two  vaults  or  portions  of  vaults  which  intersect. 
Group. — An  assemblage  of  shafts  or  mouldings  or  other  small  features 

intended  to  produce  a  combined  effect. 
Grouping. — Combining  architectural  features  as  above. 

Hall. — (1)  The  largest  room  in  an  ancient  English   mansion,   or  ;i 

college,  &c.  ;  (2)  any  large  and  stately  apartment. 
Half  Timbered   Construction. — A  mode  of  building  in  which  a 

framework  of  timbers  is  displayed  and  the  spaces  between  them 

are  filled  in  with  plaster  or  tiles. 
Hammer  Beam  Roof. — A  roof  peculiar  to  English  architecture  of  the 

fifteenth  century,  deriving  its  name  from  the  iise  of  a  hammer 

beam  (a  large  bracket  projecting  from  the  walls)  to  partly  support 

the  rafters. 
Head  (of  an  arch  or  other  opening). — The  portion  within  the  curve  ; 

whether   filled  in  by  masonry  or   left  open,  sometimes  called  a 

tympanum. 
Hip. — The  external  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  sloping  sides 

of  a  roof  where  there  is  no  gable. 
Hotel  (French). — A  town  mansion. 

Impost. — A  moulding  or  other  line  marking  the  top  of  the  jambs 
of  an  arched  opening,  and  the  starting  point,  or  apparent  starting 
point,  of  the  arch. 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS.  XXVll 

Inlay. — A  mode  of  decoration  in  which  coloured  materials  are  laid 

into   sinkings  of  ornamental   shape,  cut   into  the  surface  to  be 

decorated. 
Intersection   (or  Crossing). — The  point  in  a  church   where   tlie 

transepts  cross  the  nave. 
Intersecting  Vaults. — Vaults  of  which  the  surfaces  cut  one  another. 
Interpenetration. — A  German  mode  of  treating  mouldings,  as  though 

two  or  more  sets  of  them  existed  in  the  same  stone  and  they 

could  pass  through  (interpenetrate)  each  other. 

Jamb. — The  side  of  a  door  or  window  or  arch,  or  other  opening. 


Fig.  v. — Plan  of  a  Jamb  and  Central  Pier  of  a  Gothic  Doorway. 

Keep. — The  tower  which  formed  the  stronghold  of  a  medifeval  castle. 
King  Post. — The  middle  post  in  the  framing  of  a  timber  roof. 

Lancet  Ap.ch. — The  sharply-pointed  window-head  and  arch,  character- 
istic of  English  Gothic  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Lantern. — A  conspicuous  feature  rising  above  a  roof  or  crowning  a 
dome,  and  intended  usually  to  light  a  Hall,  but  often  introduced 
simply  as  an  architectural  finish  to  the  whole  building. 

Lierne  (.rib). — A  rib  intermediate  between  the  main  ribs  in  Gothic 
vaulting. 

Light. — One  of  the  divisions  of  a  window  of  which  the  entire  width 
is  divided  by  one  or  more  mullions. 

Lintol. — The  stone  or  beam  covering  a  doorway  or  other  opening  not 
spanned  by  an  arch.  Sometimes  applied  to  the  architrave  of  an 
order. 


XXVlll  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

Loggia  (Italian). — An  open  arcade  with  a  gallery  beliiiid. 

Loop, — Short  for  loophole.    A  very  narrow  slit  in  the  wall  of  a  fortress, 

serving  as  a  window,  or  to  shoot  through. 
LucARNE. — A   spire-light.     A   small   window  like  a  slender  dormer 

window. 

Moat  (or  Fosse). — The  ditch  round  a  fortress  or  semi-fortified  house. 

Mosaic. — An  ornament  for  pavements,  walls,  and  the  surfaces  of 
vaults,  formed  by  cementing  together  small  pieces  of  coloured 
material  (stone,  marble,  tile,  &c.)  so  as  to  produce  a  pattern  or 
picture. 

Moulding. — A  term  applied  to  all  varieties  of  contour  or  outline  given 
to  the  angles,  projections,  or  recesses  of  the  various  parts  of  a 
building.  The  object  being  either  to  produce  an  outline  satis- 
factory to  the  eye ;  or,  more  frequently,  to  obtain  a  play  of  light 
and  shade,  and  to  produce  the  appearance  of  a  line  or  a  series  of 
lines,  broad  or  narrow,  and  of  varying  intensity  of  lightness  or 
shade  in  the  building  or  some  of  its  features. 

The  contour  which  a  moulding  would  present  when  cut  across 
in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  its  length  is  called  its  profile. 

The  profile  of  mouldings  varied  with  each  style  of  architecture 
and  at  each  period  (Figs,  w  to  z).  When  ornaments  are  carved 
out  of  some  of  the  moulded  surfaces  the  latter  are  technically 
termed  enriched  mouldings.  The  enrichments  in  use  varied  with 
each  style  and  each  period,  as  the  mouldings  themselves  did. 

MuLLiON. — The  upright  bars  of  stone  frequently  employed  (especially 
in  Gothic  architecture)  to  subdivide  one  window  into  two  or  more 
lights. 

Nave. — (1)  The  central  avenue  of  a  church  or  cathedral  ;  (2)  the 
western  part  of  a  church  as  distinguished  from  the  chancel  or 
choir  ;  (3)  occasionally,  any  avenue  in  the  interior  of  a  building 
■which  is  divided  by  one  or  more  rows  of  columns  running  length- 
ways is  called  a  nave. 

Necking  (of  a  column). — The  point  (usually  marked  by  a  fillet  or  other 
small  projecting  moulding)  where  the  shaft  ends  and  the  capital 
begins. 

Newel  Post. — The  stout  post  at  the  foot  of  a  staircase  from  which 
the  balustrade  or  the  handrail  starts. 


Fio.  w— .Arch  Mouldino. 
f Gothic,  12th  Century.) 


Fig.  2/.— Arch  Moui.l>i>q. 
(Decorated,  14th  Century.) 


Fio.  «.— Arch  Moulding.     (Gothic,  ISth  Centnry.) 


XXX  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

Niche. — A  recess  in  a  wall  for  a  statue,  vase,  or  other  upright  orna- 
ment. 

NoiiMAN. — The  architecture  of  England  from  the  Norman  Conquest 
till  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Ogee. — A  moulding  or  line  of  part  concave  and  part  convex  curva 
ture  (see  Fig.  e,  showing  an  ogee-shaped  arch). 

Ogival. — Ogee-shaped  (see  Fig.  54). 

Open  Tracery. — Tracery  in  which  the  spaces  between  the  bars  are 
neither  closed  by  slabs  of  stone  nor  glazed. 

Order. —  (1)  In  Classical  and  Renaissance  architecture  a  single  column 
or  pilaster  and  its  appropriate  entablature  or  superstructure ;  (2)  a 
series  of  columns  or  pilasters  with  their  entablature  ;  (3)  an  entire 
decorative  system  appropriate  to  the  kind  of  column  chosen.  In 
Renaissance  ai-chitecture  there  are  five  orders— the  Tuscan,  Doric, 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite.  Each  has  its  own  proper 
column,  and  its  proper  base,  shaft,  and  capital ;  and  its  own  enta- 
blature. The  proportions  and  the  degree  of  enrichment  appropriate 
to  each  vary.  The  Tuscan  being  the  sturdiest  and  plainest,  the 
Composite  the  most  slender  and  most  small,  and  the  others  taking 
])lace  in  the  succession  in  which  they  stand  enumerated  above. 
Where  more  than  one  oi'der  occurs  in  a  building,  as  constantly 
happens  in  Classic  and  Renaissance  buildings,  the  orders  which 
are  the  plainest  and  most  sturdy  (and  have  been  named  first)  if 
emplo}'ed,  are  invariably  placed  below  the  more  slender  orders  ; 
e.g.  the  Doric  is  never  placed  over  the  Corinthian  or  the  Ionic, 
but  if  employed  in  combination  with  either  of  those  orders  it  is 
always  the  lowest  in  position. 

Oriel. — A  window  projecting  like  a  bay  or  bow  window,  not  resting 
on  the  ground  but  thrown  out  above  the  ground  level  and  resting 
on  a  corbel. 

Palladian.- — A  phase  of  fully  developed  Renaissance  architecture 
introduced  by  the  architect  Palladio,  and  largely  followed  in 
England  as  well  as  in  Italy. 

Panel.  —  (1)  The  thinner  portions  of  the  framed  woodwork  of  doors 
and  other  such  joiner's  work  ;  (2)  all  sunk  compartments  in 
masonry,  ceilings,  &c. 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS.  XXXI 

Panelling. — (1)  Woodwork  formed  of  framework  containing  panels; 
(2)  any  decoration  formed  of  a  series  of  sunk  compartments. 

Parapet. — A  breastwork  or  low  wall  used  to  protect  the  gutters  and 
screen  the  roofs  of  buildings ;  also,  perhaps  primarily,  to  protect 
the  ramparts  of  fortifications. 


Fig.  a  a— Open  P.\k.4PET,  l.\te  Decor.^ted. 


Fig.  b  b  — B.\ttlemented  Parapet,  Perpendicular. 

Pavilion. — A  strongly  marked  single  block  of  building;  most  fre- 
quently applied  to  those  blocks  in  French  and  other  Renaissance 
buildings  that  are  marked  out  by  high  roofs. 

Pedestal. — (1)  A  substructure  sometimes  placed  under  a  column  in 
Renaissance  architecture  ;  (2)  a  similar  substructure  intended  to 
carry  a  statue,  vase,  or  other  ornament. 

Pediment. — (1)  The  gable,  where  used  in  Renaissance  buildings  ;  (2) 
an  ornamental  gable  sometimes  placed  over  windows,  doors,  and 
other  features  in  Gothic  buildir.gs. 

Perp.  I  The  Gothic  architecture  of  the  fifteenth  century  in 

Perpendicular-  )      England.     Abbreviated  Perp. 


XXXU  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

PiETi. — (1)  A  mass  of  wallincr,  either  a  detached  portion  of  a  wall  or 
a  distinct  structure  of  masonry,  taking  the  place  of  a  column  in 
the  arcade  of  a  church  or  elsewhere  ;  (2)  a  group  or  cluster  of 
shafts  substituted  for  a  column. 


Fig.  cc. — Early  English  Piers. 


Fio.  dd.— Late  Decor.\ted  and  PERPENncuLAR  Piers. 


Pilaster. — A  square  column,  usually  attached  to  a  wall  ;  frequently 
used  in  Classic  and  Eenaissance  architecture  in  combination  ^\^th 
column.^. 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS.  XXXIU 

Pinnacle   (in   Gothic  architecture). — A  small   turret,  "or  ornament, 
usually  with  a  pointed  top,  employed  to  mark  the  summit   of 
gables,  buttresses,  and  other  tall  features. 
Pitch. — The  degree  of  slope  given  to  a  roof,  gable,  or  pediment. 
Plan. — (1)  A  map  of  the  floor  of  a  building,  showing  the  piers,  if 
any,  and  the  walls  which  inclose  and  divide  it,  with  the  openings 
in  them  ;  (2)  the  actual  arrangement  and  disposition  of  the  floors, 
piers,  and  walls  of  the  building  itself. 
Plane. — The  imaginary  surface  within  which  a  series  of  mouldings 
lies,  and  which  coincides  with  the  salient  and  important  points 
of  that  series.    Mouldings  are  said  to  be  on  an  oblique  plane  when 
their  plane  forms  an  angle  less  than  a  right  angle  with  the  face 
of  the  wall ;  and  in  receding  planes,  when  they  can  be  divided 
into  a  series  of  groups  of  more  or  less  stepped  outline,  each  within 
and  behind  the  other,  and  each  partly  bounded  by  a  plane  parallel 
with  the  face  of  the  wall. 
Plaster. — The  plastic   material,  of  which  the  groundwork  is  lime 
and  sand,  used  to  cover  walls  internally  and  to   form  ceilings. 
Sometimes  employed  as  a  covering  to  walls  externally. 
Plinth. — The  base  of  a  wall  or  of  a  column  or  range  of  columns. 
Portal. — A  dignified  and  important  entrance  doorway. 
Portico. — A  range  of  columns  with  their  entablature  (and  usually 
covered  by  a  pediment),  marking  the  entrance  to  a  Renaissance  or 
Classic  building. 
Prismatic    Rustication. — In    Elizabethan    architecture    rusticated 
masonry  with   diamond-shaped  projections   worked  on   the  face 
of  each  stone. 
Profile. — The  contour  or  outline  of  mouldings  as  they  would  appear 

if  sawn  across  at  right  angles  to  their  length. 
Porch. — A  small  external  structure  to  protect  and  ornament  the  door- 
way to  a  building  (rarely  met  with  in  Renaissance). 

Quatrefoil. — A  four-leaved  ornament  occupying  a  circle  in  tracery 
or  a  panel. 

Rafters. — The  sloping  beams  of  a  roof  upon  which  the  covering  of 

the  roof  rests. 
Ragstone. — A  coarse  stone  found  in  parts  of  Kent  and  elsewhere,  and 

used  for  walling. 
Receding  Planes. — (See  Plane.) 

G  A  c 


XXXIV  GOTHIC    ARCIIITECTUKE. 

Recess. — A  sinking  in  a  building  deeper  than  a  mere  panel. 
Eecessing. — Forming   one  or  more  recesses.     Throwing  back   some 

part  of  a  building  behind  the  general  face. 
Eenaissance. — The   art  of  the  period  of  the  Classic  revival  which 

began  in  the   sixteenth  century.      In  this  volume  used   chiefly 

to  denote  the  architecture  of  Europe  in  that  and  the  succeeding 

centuries. 
EiB  (in  Gothic  vaulting). — A  bar  of  masonry  or  moulding  projecting 

beyond  the  general  surface  of  a  vault,  to  mark  its  intersections  or 

subdivide  its  surface,  and  to  add  strength. 
Ridge. — (1)  The  straight  line  or  ornament  which  marks  the  summit 

of  a  roof;  (2)  the  line  or  rib,  straight  or  curved,  which  marks  the 

summit  of  a  vault. 
Roll. — A  round  moulding. 
Rose  Window. — A  wheel  window  (which  see). 
Rubble. — Rough  stonework  forming  the  heart  of  a  masonry  wall  ; 

sometimes  faced  with  ashlar  (which  see),  sometimes  shown. 
Rustication  (or  Rusticated  Masonry). — The  sort  of  ornamental 

ashlar  masonry  (chiefly  Classic  and  Renaissance)  in  which  each 

stone  is  distinguished  by  a  broad  channel  all  round  it,  marking 

the  joints. 
Rustics. — The   individual  blocks    of  stone   used   in   rustication    (as 

described  above). 

Screen. — An   internal   partition   or  inclosure   cutting  oH'  part  of  a 

building.     At  the  entrance  to  the  choir  of  a  church  screens  of 

beautiful  workmanship  were  used. 
Scroll  Moulding. — A  round  roll  moulding  showing  a  line  along  its 

face  (distinctive  of  decorated  Gothic). 
Scroll  Work.  — Ornament  showing  winding  spiral  lines  like  the  edge 

of  a  scroll  of  paper  (chiefly  found  in  Elizabethan). 
Section. — (1)    A  drawing  of  a  building  as  it  would  appear  if  cut 

through  at  some  fixed  plane.     (2)  That  part  of  the  construction  of 

a  building  which  would   be    displayed  by  such   a  drawing  as 

described  above,     (3)  The  profile  of  a  moulding. 
Set-off. — A  small  ledge  formed  by  diminishing  the  thickness  of  a 

wall  or  pier, 
Sexpartite  Vaulting. — Where  each  bay  or  cominutnicnt  is  divided 

by  its  main  ribs  into  six  portions. 


GLUSSAUV    Ol"    TKCHNICAL    WORDS.  XXXV 

SfiRAFFiTO  (Italian). — An  ornament  produced  by  .scratching  lines  on 
the  plastered  face  of  a  building  so  as  to  show  a  different  colour 
filling  up  the  lines  or  surfaces  scratched  away. 

Shaft. — (1)  The  middle  part  of  a  column  between  its  base  and  capi- 
tal. (2)  In  Gothic,  slender  columns  introduced  for  ornamental 
purposes,  singly  or  in  clusters. 

Shell  Oknament. — A  decoration  frequently  employed  in  Italian  and 
French  Renaissance,  and  resembling  the  interior  of  a  shell. 

Skyline. — The  outline  which  a  building  will  show  against  the  sky. 

Spandrel. — The  triangular  (or  other  shaped)  space  between  the  out- 
side of  an  arch  and  the  mouldings,  or  surfaces  inclosing  it  or  in 
contact  with  it.     (See  Fig.  s,  under  Diaper.) 

Spire. — The  steep  and  pointed  roof  of  a  tower  (usually  a  church 
tower). 

Spire-light  (or  Lucarne). — A  dormer  window  (which  see)  in  a  spire. 

Splay.— A  slope  making  with  the  face  of  a  wall  an  angle  less  than  a 
right  angle. 

Stage. — One  division  in  the  height  of  any  building  or  portion  of  a 
building  where  horizontal  divisions  are  distinctly  marked,  e.g.,  the 
belfry  stage  of  a  tower,  the  division  in  which  the  bells  are  hung. 

Steeple. — A  tower  and  spire  in  combination.  Sometimes  applied  to 
a  tower  or  spire  separately. 

Stepped  Gable. — A  gable  in  which,  instead  of  a  sloping  Hue,  the  out- 
line is  formed  by  a  series  of  steps. 

Stilted  Arch.— An  arch  of  which  the  curve  does  not  commence  till 
above  the  level  of  the  impost  (which  see). 

Story. — (1)  [.The  portion  of  a  building  between  one  floor  and  the 
next  ;  (2)  any  stage  or  decidedly  marked  horizontal  compartment 
of  a  building,  .even  if  not  corresponding  to  an  actual  story  marked 
by  a  floor. 

Strap- work  (Elizabethan).  —  An  ornament  representing  strap-like 
fillets  interlaced. 

String-course.— A  projecting  horizontal  (or  occasionally  sloping) 
band  or  line  of  mouldings. 

Tabernacle  Work.— The  richly  ornamented  and  carved  work  with 
which  the  smaller  and  more  precious  features  of  a  church,  e.g.,  the 
fittings  of  a  choir,  were  adorned  and  made  conspicuous. 

Terminal  (or  Finial).— The  ornamental  top  of  a  pinnacle,  gable,  &c. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


Terra  Cotta. — A  fine  kind  of  brick  capable  of  being  highly  ornamented, 

and  formed  into  blocks  of  some  size. 
Thrust, — The  pressure  exercised  laterally  by  an  arch  or  vault,  or  by 

the  timbers  of  a  roof  on  the  abutments  or  supports. 
Tie. — A  beam  of  wood,  bar  of  iron,  or  similar  expedient  employed  to 

hold  together  the  feet  or  sides  of  an  arch,  vault,  or  roof,  and  so 

counteract  the  thrust. 
Tortjs. — A  large  convex  moulding. 
Tower. — A  portion  of  a  building  rising  conspicuously  above  the  general 

mass,  and  obviously  distinguished  by  its  height  from  that  mass. 

A  detached  building  of  which  the  height  is  great,  relative  to  the 

width  and  breadth. 
Tracery  (Gothic). — The  ornamental  stone-workformedby  the  curving 

and  interlacing  of  bars   of  stone,   and  occupying  the  heads   of 

windows,  panels,  and  other  situations  where  decoration  and  light- 


Fio.  ee. — Perpendicular 

WiNDOWHEAD. 


Fig.//. — Late  Peependicular 

WiNDuWHEAD. 


uess  have  to  be  combined.  The  simplest  and  earliest  tracery  might 
be  described  as  a  combination  of  openings  pierced  through  the  stone 
head  of  an  arch.  Cusping  and  foliation  (which  see)  are  features  of 
tracery.     (See  Figs.  18,  19,  55,  and  57  in  the  text.) 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS.  XXXVU 

Transept. — The  arms  of  a  church  or  cathedral  which  cross  the  line  of 

the  nave. 
Teaxsitiox.—  The  architecture  of  a  period  coming  between  and  sharing 

the  characteristics  of  two  distinctly  marked  styles  or  phases  of 

architecture,  one  of  which  succeeded  the  other. 
Tbansome. — A  horizontal  bar  (usually  of  stone)  across  a  window  or 

panel. 

Trefoil. — A  three-leaved  or  three-lobed  form  found  constantly  in 
the  heads  of  windows  and  in  other  situations  where  tracery  is 
employed. 

Triforium  (or  Thorough-fare). — The  story  in  a  large  church  or 

cathedral  intermediate  between  the  arcade  separating  the  nave  and 

aisles,  and  the  clerestory. 
Tudor. — The  architecture  of  England  during  the  reigns  of  the  Tudor 

kings.     The  use  of  the  term  is  usually,  however,  restricted  to  a 

period  which  closes  with  the  end  of  Henry  VIII. 's  reign,  1547. 
Turret. — A  small  tower,  sometimes  rising  from  the  ground,  but  often 

carried  on  corbels  and  commencing  near  the  upper  part  of  the 

building  to  which  it  is  an  appendage. 
Tympanum. — The  filling  in  of  the  head  of  an  arch,  or  occasionally  of 

an  ornamental  gable. 

Undercutting. — A  moulding  or  ornament  of  which  the  greater  part 
stands  out  from  the  mouldings  or  surfaces  which  it  adjoins,  as 
though  almost  or  quite  detached  from  them,  is  said  to  be  undercut. 

Vault. — An  arched  ceiling  to  a  building,  or  part  of  a  building,  executed 
in  masonry  or  in  some  substitute  for  masonry. 

The  vaults  of  the  Norman  period  were  simple  barrel-  or  waggon- 
headed  vaults,  and  semicircular  arches  only  were  used  in  their 
construction.  With  the  Gothic  period  the  use  of  intersecting, 
and  as  a  result  of  pointed  arches,  was  introduced  into  vaulting, 
and  vaults  went  on  increasing  in  complexity  and  elaboration  till 
the  Tudor  period,  when  fan-vaulting  was  employed.  Our  illus- 
trations show  some  of  the  steps  in  the  development  of  Gothic 
vaults  referred  to  in  Chapter  V.  of  the  text.  No.  1  represents  a 
waggon-head  vault  with  an  intersecting  vault  occupying  part  of 
its  length.  No.  2  represents  one  of  the  expedients  adopted  for 
vaulting  an  oblong  compartment  before  the  pointed  arch  was  in- 
troduced.    The  narrower  arch  is  stilted  and  the  line  of  the  groin 


Fig.  9  ^.— VArLT.s. 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    WORDS.  XXxix 

is  not  true.  No.  3  represents  a  similar  compartment  vaulted 
without  any  distortion  or  irregularity  by  the  help  of  the  pointed 
ai'ch.  No.  4  represents  one  lay  of  a  sexpartite  Gothic  vault. 
No.  5  represents  a  vault  with  lierne  ribs  making  a  star-shaped 
pallom  on  plan,  and  No.  6  is  a  somewhat  more  intricate  example 
of  the  same  class  of  vault. 

Vaults  are  met  with  in  Eenaissance  buildings,  but  they  are  a  less 
distinctive  feature  of  such  buildings  than  the}^  were  in  the  Gothic 
period  ;  and  in  many  cases  where  a  vault  or  a  series  of  vaults  would 
have  been  employed  by  a  Gothic  architect,  a  Renaissance  architect 
has  preferred  to  make  use  of  a  dome  or  a  series  of  domes.  Thi« 
is  called  domical  vaulting.  Examples  of  it  occur  occasionallj-  in 
Gothic  work. 

Waggon-head  Vaulting,  or  Barrel-Vaulting. — A  simple  form 
of  tunnel-like  vaulting,  which  gets  its  name  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  tilt  often  seen  over  large  waggons,  or  to  the  half  of  a  barrel. 

"Wainscot. — (1)  The  panelling  often  employed  to  line  the  walls  of  a 
room  or  building ;  (2)  a  finely  marked  variety  of  oak  imported 
chiefly  from  Holland ;  probably  so  called  because  wainscot  oak 
was  at  one  time  largely  employed  for  such  panelling. 

"Weathering. — A  sloping  surface  of  stone  employed  to  cover  the  set-off 
(which  see)  of  a  wall  or  buttress  and  protect  it  from  the  effects 
of  weather. 

"Wheel  "Window. — A  circular  window,  and  usually  one  in  which 
mullious  radiate  from  a  centre  towards  the  circumference  like  the 
spokes  of  a  wheel ;  sometimes  called  a  rose-window. 

"Window-head. — For  illustrations  of  the  various  forms  and  filling-iu 
of  Gothic  window-heads,  see  the  words  Arch  and  Tracery. 


'^t-)jgi 

^c^-'^ 

=^'1 

^C22=-^-v 

^T^jr    '^•' 

i 

m 

1 

1 

HEAD    AND   TAIL-PIECES. 


Headpiece. 


Tailpiece.  - 
Headpiece." 
Tailpiece.  - 
Headpiece.- 
Tallpiece.  - 

Headpiece. — 

Tailpiece.  - 
Headpiece.- 


PAGE 

Crete  from  Notre  Dame,  Paris 1 

Sculptured  Ornament  from  Eheims  Cathedral  .      6 
„  „  Sens  Cathedral      .     .    21 

„  „  Westminster  Abbey  .    28 

Norman  Capitals 44 

Sculptured  Ornajient  from  Westminster  Abbey  .  45 
Miserere  Seat  from  Wells  Cathedral  ....  68 
Stained  Glass  from  Chartkes  Cathedral  ...  69 
Miserere  Seat  from  Wells  Cathedral      ....    92 

Ornament  from  Eheims  Cathedral 153 

Eenaissance  Ornament  from  a  Frieze 154 

From  a  terea-cotta  Frieze  at  Lodi 165 

From  a  Door  in  Santa  Maria,  Venice  .....  192 

■Ornament  by  Giulio  Eomano 193 

From  a  Frieze  at  Venice 235 


The  End-papers  are  from  a  Tapestry  in  Hardwicke  Hall. 


The  Lily  of  Florence. 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE, 


CHAPTER     T. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  architecture  generally  known  as  Gothic,  but  often 
described  as  Christian  Pointed,  prevailed  through- 
out Europe  to  the  exclusion  of  every  rival  for  upwards 
of  three  centuries  ;  and  it  is  to  be  met  with,  more  or  less, 
during  two  others.  Speaking  broadly,  it  may  be  said 
that  its  origin  took  place  in  the  twelfth  century,  that 
the  thirteenth  was  the  period  of  its  development,  the 
fourteenth  that  of  its  perfection,  and  the  fifteenth  that 
of  its  decline ;  while  many  examples  of  its  employment 
occur  in  the  sixteenth. 

In  the  following  chapters  the  principal  changes  in  the 
features  of  buildings  which  occurred  during  the  progress 
of  the  style  in  England  will  be  described.  Subsequently, 
the  manner  in  which  the  different  stages  of  development 
were  reached  in  different  countries  will  be  given ;  for 
architecture  passed  through  very  nearly  the  same  phases 
in  all  European  nations,  though  not  quite  simultaneously. 

It  must  be  understood  that  through   the  whole  Gothic 


G   A 


-  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

period,  growth  or  at  least  change  was  going  on ;  the 
transitions  from  one  stage  to  another  were  only  periods  of 
more  rapid  change  than  usual.  The  whole  process  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  progress  of  a  language.  If,  for  instance,  we 
compare  round-arched  architecture  in  the  eleventh  century 
to  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  of  speech  of  the  time  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  and  the  architecture  of  the  twelfth  century  to 
the  English  of  Chaucer,  that  of  the  thirteenth  will  corre- 
spond to  the  richer  language  of  Shakespeare,  that  of  the 
fourteenth  to  the  highly  polished  language  of  Addison  and 
Pope,  and  that  of  the  fifteenth  to  the  English  of  our  own 
day.  We  can  thus  obtain  an  apt  parallel  to  the  gradual 
change  and  growth  which  went  on  in  architecture ;  and 
we  shall  find  that  the  oneness  of  the  language  in  the 
former  case,  and  of  the  architecture  in  the  latter,  was 
maintained  throughout. 

For  an  account  of  the  Chi-istian  round-arched  architec- 
ture which  preceded  Gothic,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
companion  volume  in  this  series.  Here  it  will  be  only 
necessary  briefly  to  i-eview  the  circumstances  which  went 
before  the  appearance  of  the  pointed  styles. 

The  Roman  empire  had  introduced  into  Europe  some 
thing  like  a  universal  architecture,  so  that  the  buildings 
of  any  Roman  colony  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  those 
of  every  other  colony  and  of  the  metropolis;  vai'ying,  of 
course,  in  extent  and  magnificence,  but  not  much  in  design- 
The  architecture  of  the  Dark  Ages  in  Western  Europe 
exhibited,  so  far  as  is  known,  the  same  general  similarity. 
Down  to  the  eleventh  century  the  buildings  erected  (almost 
exclusively  churches  and  monastic  buildings)  were  not 
large  or  rich,  and  were  heavy  in  appearance  and  simple 
in  construction.     Their  arches  were  all  eemicircular. 

The  first  rays  of  light  across  the  gloom  of   the  Dark 


INTUODUCTION. 

Ages  seem  to  have  come  from  the  energy  and  ability  of 
Charlemagne  in  the  eighth  century. 

In  the  succeeding  century,  this  activity  received  a 
check ;  an  idea  became  generally  prevalent  that  the  year 
one  thousand  was  to  see  the  end  of  the  world ;  men's  minds 
were  overshadowed  with  apprehension  ;  and  buildings,  in 
common  with  other  undertakings  of  a  permanent  nature, 
were  but  little  attempted. 

When  the  millennium  came  and  passed,  and  left  all  as  it 
had  been,  a  kind  of  revulsion  of  feeling  was  experienced  ; 
many  important  undertakings  were  set  on  foot,  such  as 
during  the  preceding  years  it  had  not  been  thought 
worth  while  to  prosecute.  The  eleventh  century  thus 
became  a  time  of  great  religious  activity  ;  and  if  the  First 
Crusade,  which  took  place  1095,  may  be  taken  as  one 
outcome  of  that  pious  zeal,  another  can  certainly  be  found 
in  the  large  and  often  costly  churches  and  monasteries 
which  x'ose  in  every  part  of  England,  France,  Germany, 
Lombardy,  and  South  Italy.  Keen  rivalry  raged  among 
the  builders  of  these  churches ;  each  one  was  built  larger 
and  finer  than  the  previous  examples,  and  the  details  began 
to  grow  elaborate.  Construction  and  ornament  were  in 
fact  advancing  and  improving,  if  not  from  year  to  year, 
at  any  rate  from  decade  to  decade,  so  that  by  the  com- 
mencement of  the  twelfth  century  a  remarkable  develop- 
ment had  taken  place.  The  ideas  of  the  dimensions  of 
churches  then  entertained  were  really  almost  as  liberal  as 
during  the  best  period  of  Gothic  architecture. 

An  illustration  of  this  fact  is  furnished  by  the  rebuilding 
of  Westminster  Abbey  under  Edward  the  Confessor.  He 
pulled  down  a  small  church  which  he  found  standing  on 
the  site,  in  order  to  erect  one  suitable  in  size  and  style  to 
the  ideas  of  the  day.    The  style  of  his  cathedral  (but  not  its 

B  2 


GOTHIC    ARCIIITECTURK. 


dimensions)  soon  became  so  much  out  of  date  that  Henry  IIT. 
pulled  the  buildings  down  in  order  to  re-erect  them  of  the 
lofty  proportions  and  with  the  pointed  arches  which  we  now 
see  in  the  choir  and  transepts  of  the  Abbey  ;  but  the  size 
remained  nearly  the  same,  for  there  is  evidence  to  show  that 
the  Confessor's  buildings  must  have  occupied  very  nearly,  if 
not  quite,  as  much  ground  as  those  which  succeeded  them. 
At  the   beginning  of    the    twelfth  century  many  local 
peculiarities,   some  of  them  due  to  accident,  some  to  the 
nature  and  quality  of  the  building  matei'ials  obtainable, 
some  to  differences  of  race,  climate,  and  habits,  and  some 
to  other  causes,  had  begun  to  make  their  appearance  in  the 
buildings  of  various    parts   of  Europe ;    and  through   the 
whole  Gothic  period    such    peculiarities    were  to  be  met 
with.     Still  the  points  of  similarity  were  greater  and  more 
numerous  than  the  differences ;   so  much  so,  that  by  going 
through  the  course  which  Gothic  architecture  ran  in  one 
of  the  countries  in  which  it  flourished,  it  will  readily  be 
possible  to  furnish  a  general  outline  of  the  subject  as  a 
whole ;    it   will   then   only  be  requisite  to  point  out  the 
principal  variations  in  the  practice  of  other  countries.     On 
some  grounds  France  would  be  the  most  suitable  country 
to  select  for  this  pui'pose,  for  Gothic  appeared  earlier  and 
flourished  more  brilliantly  in    that   country  than  in  any 
other ;  the  balance  of  advantage  lies  however,  when  writing 
for  English   students,   in  the   selection  of    Great  Britain. 
The  various  phases  through  which  the  art  passed  are  well 
marked  in  this  country,  they  have  been  fully  studied  and 
described,  and,  what  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  English 
examples  are  easily  accessible  to  the  majority  of  students, 
while  those  which  cannot  be   visited  may  be  very  readily 
studied  from  engravings  and  photographs.     English  Gothic 
will  therefore  be  first   considered  ;  but  as  a  preliminary  a 


TNTHUDUCTION.  0 

few  words  remain  to  be  said  describing  generally  the  build- 
ings which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  Gothic  period. 

The  word  Gothic,  -which  was  in  use  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  probably  earlier,  was  invented  at  a  time  when 
a  Goth  was  synonymous  with  everything  that  was  bar- 
barous ;  and  its  use  then  implied  a  reproach.  It  denotes, 
according  to  Mr.  Fergusson,  "  all  the  styles  invented  and 
used  by  the  Western  barbarians  who  overthrew  the  Roman 
empire,  and  settled  within  its  limits." 


Fia  1.  — West  Entrance,  Lichfield  Cathedral,     (lavr) ) 
(See  Cliapter  V.) 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  BUILDINGS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

BY  far  the  most  important  specimens  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture are  the  cathedrals  and  large  churches  which  were 
built  during  the  prevalence  of  the  style.  They  were  more 
numerous,  larger,  and  more  complete  as  works  of  art  than 
any  other  structures,  and  accordingly  they  are  to  be  con- 
sidered on  every  account  as  the  best  examples  of  pointed 
architecture. 


EAST 


WEST 


SOUTH 


Fig.  ;;.— Ground  Plan  of  Peterborough  Cathedral.     (lllS  to  1193.) 
Nave.  B  B.  Transepts.  c.  Choir.  d  d.  Aisles.  e.  Principal  Entrance. 

The  arrangement  and  construction  of  a  Gothic  cathedral 
were  customarily  as  follows  :—( See  Fig.  2.)  The  main 
axis  of  the  building  was  always  east  and  west,  the  principal 


THE    liUILDINGS    OF    THE    MILULE    AGES. 


entrance  being  at  the  west  end,  usually  under  a  grand  porch 
or  portal,  and  the  high  altar  stood  at  the  east  end.  The  plan 
(or  main  floor)  of  the  building  almost  always  displays  the 
form  of  a  cross.    The  stem  of  the  cross  is  the  part  from  the 


Fig.  3. — Transverse  Section  of  the  Nave  ok   Salisbury  Cathedral. 

(A  D.    1217). 

west  entrance  to  the  crossing,  and  is  called  the  nave.  The 
arms  of  the  cross  are  called  transepts,  and  point  respectively 
north  and  south.  Their  crossing  with  the  nave  is  often 
called  the  intersection.  The  remaining  arm,  which  prolongs 
the  stem  eastwards,  is  ordinarily  called  the  choir,  but  some- 


8  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

times  the  presbytery,  and  sometimes  the  chancel.  All  these 
names  really  refer  to  the  position  of  the  internal  fittings 
of  the  church,  and  it  is  often  more  accurate  simply  to 
employ  the  term  eastern  arm  for  this  portion  of  a  church. 

The  nave  is  flanked  by  two  avenues  running  parallel  to 
it,  narrower  and  lower  than  itself,  called  aisles.  They  are 
separated  from  it  by  rows  of  columns  or  piers,  connected 
together  by  arches.  Thus  the  nave  has  an  arcade  on 
each  side  of  it,  and  each  aisle  has  an  arcade  on  one 
side,  and  a  main  external  wall  on  the  other.  The  aisle 
walls  are  usually  piei-ced  by  windows.  The  arches  of  the 
arcade  carry  walls  which  rise  above  the  roofs  of  the  aisles, 
and  light  the  nave.  These  walls  are  usually  subdivided 
internally  into  two  heights  or  stories  ;  the  lower  story 
consists  of  a  series  of  small  arches,  to  which  the  name  of 
trifoi'ium  is  given.  This  arcade  u&ually  opens  into  the  dark 
space  above  the  ceiling  or  vault  of  the  aisle,  and  hence  it  is 
sometimes  called  the  blind  story.  The  upper  story  is  the 
range  of  windows  already  alluded  to  as  lighting  the  nave, 
and  is  called  the  clerestory.  Thus  a  spectator  standing 
in  the  nave,  and  looking  towards  the  side  (iigs.  4  and  5), 
will  see  opposite  him  the  main  arcade,  and  over  that  the 
triforium,  and  over  that  the  clerestory,  crowned  by  the  nave 
vault  or  roof ;  and  looking  through  the  arches  of  the  nave 
arcade,  he  will  see  the  side  windows  of  the  aisle.  A.bove 
the  clerestory  of  the  nave,  and  the  side  windows  of  the 
aisles,  come  the  vaults  or  roofs.  In  some  instances  double 
aisles  (two  on  each  side)  have  been  employed. 

The  transepts  usually  consist  of  well-marked  limbs, 
divided  like  the  nave  into  a  centre  avenue  and  two  side 
aisles,  and  these  usually  are  of  the  same  width  and  height 
as  the  nave  and  its  aisles.  Sometimes  there  are  no  tran- 
septs ;  sometimes  they  do  not  project  beyond  the  line  of  the 


THE    BUILDINGS    OF    THE    MIDDLE    AGES. 


0 


walls,  but  still  are  marked  by  their  rising  above  the  lower 
height  of  the  nave-aisles.  Sometimes  the  transepts  have  no 
aisles,  or  an  aisle  only  on  one  side.*    On  the  other  hand,  it 


Fig.  4.— Choir  of   Worcester  Fig.  5.— Nave  of  Wells  Cathedral. 

Cathedral.  (Begcn  1224.)  (1206  to  1242.) 

A.  Nave  Arcade.  b.  Triforium.  c.  Clerestory. 

is  sometimes  customary,  especially  in  English  examples, 
to  form  two  pairs  of  transepts.  This  occurs  in  Lichfield 
Cathedral. 


As  the  uorth  transept  at  Poteiborongh  (Fig.  2). 


10  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  eastern  arm  of  the  cathedral  is  the  part  to  which 
most  importance  was  attached,  and  it  is  usual  to  mark 
that  impoi-tance  by  greater  richness,  and  by  a  difference  in 
the  height  of  its  roof  or  vault  as  compared  with  the  nave  ; 
its  floor  is  always  raised.  It  also  has  its  central  passage 
and  its  aisles  ;  and  it  has  double  aisles  much  more  frequently 
than  the  nave.  The  eastern  termination  of  the  cathedral 
is  sometimes  Semicircular,  sometimes  polygonal,  and  when 
it  takes  this  form  it  is  called  an  apse  or  an  apsidal  east 
end  ;  sometimes  it  is  square,  the  apse  being  most  in  use 
on  the  Continent,  and  the  square  east  end  in  England. 
Attached  to  some  of  the  side  walls  of  the  church  it  is 
usual  to  have  a  series  of  chapels ;  these  are  ordinarily 
chambers  partly  shut  off  from  the  main  structure,  but 
opening  into  it  by  arched  openings  ;  each  chapel  contains 
an  altar.  The  finest  chapel  is  usually  one  placed  on  the 
axis  of  the  cathedral,  and  east  of  the  east  end  of  the  main 
building ;  this  is  called,  where  it  exists,  the  Lady  Chapel, 
and  was  customarily  dedicated  to  the  Virgin.  Henry  YII.'s 
Chapel  at  "Westminster  (Fig.  6)  furnishes  a  familiar  instance 
of  the  lady  chapel  of  a  great  church.  Next  in  importance 
rank  the  side  chapels  which  open  out  of  the  aisles  of  the 
apse,  when  there  is  one.  Westminster  Abbey  furnishes 
good  examples  of  these  also.  The  eastern  wall  of  the 
transept  is  a  favourite  position  for  chapels.  They  are 
less  frequently  added  to  the  nave  aisles. 

The  floor  of  the  eastern  arm  of  the  cathedral,  as  has 
been  pointed  out,  is  always  raised,  so  as  to  be  approached 
by  steps  ;  it  is  inclosed  by  screen  work  which  shuts  off 
the  choir,  or  inclosure  for  the  performance  of  divine  service, 
from  the  nave.  The  fittings  of  this  part  of  the  building 
generally  include  stalls  for  the  clergy  and  choristers 
and  a  bishop's  throne,  and  are  usually  beautiful  -works  of 


',- ;'    ~~,ife;'    ;:■•;'  ^I-a) 


Ftg.  6.  -GRor>i)  rLA>'  nF  "Westminster  Ax'hey. 


12  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

art.  Tombs,  and  inclosures  connected  with  them,  called 
chantry  chapels,  are  constantly  met  with  in  various 
positions,  but  most  frequently  in  the  eastern  arm. 

Below  the  raised  floor  of  the  choir,  and  sometimes  below 
other  parts  of  the  building,  there  often  exists  a  subterranean 
vaulted  structure  known  as  the  crypt. 

Passing  to  the  exterior  of  the  cathedral,  the  principal 
doorway  is  in  the  western  front :  *  usually  supplemented  by 
entrances  at  the  ends  of  the  transepts,  and  one  or  more 
side  entrances  to  the  nave.  A  porch  on  the  north  side  of 
the  nave  is  a  common  feature.  The  walls  are  now  seen  to 
be  strengthened  by  stone  piers,  called  buttresses.  Fre- 
quently arches  are  thrown  from  these  buttresses  to  the 
higher  walls  of  the  building.  The  whole  arrangment  of 
pier  and  arch  is  called  a  flying  buttress,  f  and,  as  will  be 
explained  later,  is  used  to  steady  the  upper  part  of  the 
building  when  a  stone  vault  is  employed  (see  Chap.  V.). 
The  lofty  gables  in  which  the  nave  and  transepts,  and 
the  eastern  arm  when  square  terminate,  form  prominent 
features,  and  are  often  occupied  by  great  windows. 

In  a  complete  cathedral,  the  effect  of  the  exterior  is 
largely  due  to  the  towers  with  which  it  was  adorned.  The 
most  massive  tower  was  ordinarily  one  which  stood,  like 
the  central  one  of  Lichfield  Cathedral,  at  the  crossing  of 
the  nave  and  transepts.  Two  towers  were  usually  intended 
at  the  western  front  of  the  building,  and  sometimes  one,  or 
occasionally  two,  at  the  end  of  each  transept.  It  is  rare  to 
find  a  cathedral  where  the  whole  of  these  towers  have  been 
even  begun,  much  less  completed.  In  many  cases  only  one, 
in  others  three,  have  been  built.  In  some  instances  they 
have  been  erected,  and  have  fallen.  In  others  they  have 
never  been  carried  up  at  all.  During  a  large  portion  of 
*  At  E  on  the  plan  of  Peterborough  (Fig.  2).         t  See  Glossary. 


THE    BUILDINGS    OF    THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  13 

the  Gothic  period  it  was  usual  to  add  to  each  tower  a  lofty 
pyramidal  roof  or  spiie,  and  these  are  still  standing  in 
some  instances,  though  many  of  them  have  disappeared. 
Occasionally  a  tower  was  built  quite  detached  from  tht- 
church  to  which  it  belonged. 

To  cathedrals  and  abbey  churches  a  group  of  monastic 
buildings  was  appended.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  de- 
scribe these  in  much  detail.  They  were  grouped  round  an 
open  square,  surrounded  by  a  vaulted  and  arcaded  passage, 
which  is  known  as  the  cloister.  This  was  usually  fitted 
into  the  warm  and  sheltered  angle  formed  by  the  south 
side  of  the  nave  and  the  south  transept,  though  occasion- 
ally the  cloister  is  found  on  the  north  side  of  the  nave. 
The  most  important  building  opening  out  of  the  cloister  is 
the  chapter  house,  frequently  a  lofty  and  richly-ornamented 
room,  often  octagonal,  and  generally  standing  south  of  the 
south  transept.  The  usual  ai*rangement  of  the  monastic 
buildings  round  and  adjoining  the  cloister  varied  in  details 
with  the  requirements  of  the  different  monastic  orders,  and 
the  circumstances  of  each  individual  religious  house,  but, 
as  in  the  case  of  churches,  the  general  pi'inciples  of  disposi- 
tion were  fixed  early.  They  are  embodied  in  a  manuscript 
plan,  dating  as  far  back  as  the  ninth  century,  and  found  at 
St.  Gall  in  Switzerland,  and  never  seem  to  have  been  widely 
departed  from.  The  monks'  dormitory  hei'e  occupies  the 
whole  east  side  of  the  great  cloister,  there  being  no 
chapter-house.  It  is  usually  met  with  as  nearly  in  this 
position  as  the  ti'ansept  and  the  chapter-house  will  permit. 
.  The  refectory  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  cloister,  and  has 
a  connected  kitchen.  The  west  side  of  the  cloister  in  this 
instance  was  occupied  by  a  great  cellar.  Frequently  a 
hospitvim,  or  apartment  for  entertaining  guests,  stood  here. 
The  north  side  of  the  cloister  was  formed  by  the  church. 
For  the  abbot  a    detached    house  was  provided  in  the 


11  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

St.  Gall  plan  to  stand  on  the  north  side  of  the  church  ;  and 
a  second  superior  hospitum  for  his  guests.  Eastward  of 
the  church  are  placed  the  infirmary  with  its  chapel,  and 
an  infirmarer's  lodging.  The  infirmary  was  commonly 
arranged  with  a  nave  and  aisles,  much  like  a  small  parish 
church.  Other  detached  buildings  gave  a  public  school,  a 
school  for  novices  with  its  chapel,  and,  more  remotely 
placed,  granaries,  mills,  a  bakehouse,  and  other  ofiices.  A 
garden  and  a  cemetei'y  formed  part  of  the  scheme,  which 
corresponds  tolerably  well  with  that  of  many  monastic 
buildings  remaining  in  England,  as  e.g.,  those  at  Fountains' 
Abbey,  Furness  Abbey,  or  Westminster  Abbey,  so  far  as 
they  can  be  traced. 

Generally  speaking  the  principal  buildings  in  a  monastery 
were  long  and  not  very  wide  apartments,  with  windows  on 
both  sides.  Frequently  they  were  vaulted,  and  they  often 
had  a  row  of  columns  down  the  middle.  Many  are  two 
stories  high.  Of  the  dependencies,  the  kitchen,  which  was 
often  a  vaulted  apartment  with  a  chimney,  and  the 
barn,  which  was  often  of  great  size,  were  the  most  promi- 
nent. They  are  often  fine  buildings.  At  Glastonbury  very 
good  examples  of  a  monastic  barn  and  kitchen  can  be  seen, 

Second  only  in  importance  to  the  churches  and  religious 
buildings  •  come  the  military  and  domestic  buildings  of  the 
Gothic  period  (Fig.  7). 

Every  dwelling-house  of  consequence  was  more  or  less 
fortified,  at  any  rate  during  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and 
fourteenth  centuries.  A  lofty  square  tower,  called  a  keep, 
built  to  stand  a  siege,  and  with  a  walled  inclosure  at  its 
feet,  often  protected  by  a  wide  ditch  (fosse  or  moat), 
formed  the  castle  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  in  some  cases 
[e.g.  the  White  Tower  of  London),  this  keep  was  of  con- 
siderable size.  The  first  step  in  enlargement  was  to 
increase  the  number  and  importance  of  the  buildings  which 


THE  BUILDINGS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


15 


clustered  round  the  keep,  and  to  form  two  inclosures  for 
them,  known  as  an  inner  and  an  outer  bailey.  The 
outer  buildings  of  the    Tower  of    London,  though  much 


Fig.  7.— House  of  Jaques  Cceur  at  Boubges.    (Begun  14J3  ) 


modernised,  will  give  a  good  idea  of  what  a  tirst  class 
castle  grew  to  be  by  successive  additions  of  this  sort.  In 
castles  erected  near  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
{e.g.   Conway   Castle    in   North   Wales),    and    later,   the 


IG 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


square  form  of  the  keep  was  abandoned,  and  many  more 
arrangements  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the 
occupants  were  introduced ;  and  the  buildings  and  addi- 
tions to  buildings  of  the  fifteenth  century  took  more  the 
shape  of  a  modern  dwelling-house,  partly  protected  against 
violence,  but  by  no  means  strong  enough  to  stand  a  siege. 
Penshurst  may  be  cited  as  a  good  examjile  of  this  class  of 
building. 

It  will  be  understood  that,  unlike  the  religious  buildings 
which  early  received  the  form  and  disposition  from  which 
they  did  not  depart  widely,  mediaeval  domestic  buildings 
exhibit  an  amount  of  change  in  which  we  can  readily  trace 
the  effects  of  the  gradual  settlement  of  this  country,  the 
abandonment  of  habits  of  petty  warfare,  the  ultimate 
cessation  of  civil  wars,  the  introduction  of  gunpowder,  the 
increase  in  wealth  and  desire  for  comfort,  and  last,  but 
not  least,  the  confiscation  by  Henry  YIII.  of  the  property 
of  the  monastic  houses. 


Fig.  S. — Plan  of  Warwick  Castle.     (14th  akd  following  Centuries.) 


Warwick  Castle,  of  which  we  give  a  plan  (Fig.  8),  may  be 
cited  as  a  good  example  of  an  English  castellated  mansion 
of  the  time  of  Richard  II.  Below  the  principal  story  there 
is  a  vaulted  basement  containing  the  kitchens  and  many  of 
the  offices.  On  the  main  floor  we  find  the  hall,  entered  as 
usual  at  the  lower  or  servants'  end,  from  a  porch.    The  upper 


THE  BUILDINGS  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.         17 

end  gives  access  to  a  sitting-room,  built  immediately  behind 
it,  and  beyond  are  a  drawing-room  and  state  bedrooms, 
while  across  a  passage  are  placed  the  private  chapel  and 
a  large  dining  room  (a  modern  addition).  Bed-rooms 
occupy  the  upper  floors  of  the  buildings  at  both  ends  of 
the  hall. 

Perhaps  even  more  interesting  as  a  study  than  AVarwick 
Castle  is  Haddon  Hall,  the  well-preserved  residence  of  the 
Duke  of  Rutland,  in  Derbyshire.  The  five  or  six  succes- 
sive enlargements  and  additions  which  this  building  has 
received  between  the  thirteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
show  the  growth  of  ideas  of  comfort  and  even  luxury  in 
this  counti'y. 

As  it  now  stands,  Haddon  Hall  contains  two  internal 
quadx-angles,  separated  from  one  another  by  the  great  hall 
with  its  dais,  its  minstrels'  gallery,  its  vast  open  fire-place, 
and  its  traceried  windows,  and  by  the  kitchens,  butteries, 
ike,  belonging  to  it. 

The  most  important  apartments  are  reached  from  the 
upper  end  of  the  hall,  and  consist  of  the  magnificent  ball- 
room, and  a  dining-room  in  the  usual  position,  i.e.  adjoining 
the  hall  and  opening  out  of  it ;  with,  on  the  upper  floor,  a 
drawing-room,  and  a  suite  of  state  bed-rooms,  occupying 
the  south  side  of  both  quadrangles  and  the  east  end  of 
one.  A  large  range  of  apartments,  added  at  a  late  period, 
and  many  of  them  finely  panelled  and  lined  with  tapestry, 
occupies  the  north  side  of  this  building  and  the  north- 
western tower.  At  the  south-western  corner  of  the  build- 
ing stands  a  chapel  of  considerable  size,  and  which  once 
seems  to  have  served  as  a  kind  of  parochial  church ;  and  a 
very  considerable  number  of  rooms  of  small  size,  opening 
out  of  both  quadrangles,  would  afford  shelter,  if  not  com- 
fortable lodging,  to  retainers,  servants,  and  others.     The 

G    A  C 


Ficj.  9.— Talaces  on  the  Ghand  Caxal,  Venice.    (14th  Centuet.) 


THE    BUILDINGS    OF    THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  10 

portions  built  in  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth 
centuries  are  more  or  less  fortified.  The  ball-room,  which  is 
of  Elizabethan  architecture,  opens  on  to  a  terraced  garden, 
accessible  from  without  by  no  more  violent  means  than 
climbing  over  a  not  very  formidable  wall.  Probably 
nowhere  in  England  can  the  growth  of  domestic  architec- 
ture be  better  studied,  whether  we  look  to  the  alterations 
which  took  place  in  accommodation  and  arrangement,  or  to 
the  changes  which  occurred  in  the  architectural  treatment 
of  windows,  battlements,  doorways  and  other  features, 
than  at  Haddon  Hall, 

In  towns  and  cities  much  beautiful  domestic  archi- 
tecture is  to  be  found  in  the  ordinary  dwelling-houses, 
e.g.  houses  from  Chester  and  Lisieux  (Figs.  14  and  15);  but 
many  specimens  have  of  course  perished,  especially  as  timber 
was  freely  used  in  their  construction.  Dwelling-houses  of  a 
high  order  of  excellence,  and  of  large  size,  were  also  built 
dui'ing  this  period.  The  Gothic  palaces  of  Venice,  of  which 
many  stand  on  the  Grand  Canal  {Fig.  9),  are  the  best 
examples  of  these,  and  the  lordly  Ducal  Palace  in  that 
city  is  perhaps  the  finest  secular  building  which  exists 
of  Gothic  architecture. 

Municipal  buildings  of  great  size  and  beauty  are  to  be 
found  in  North  Italy  and  Germany,  but  chiefly  in 
Belgium,  where  the  various  town-halls  of  Louvain, 
Bruges,  Ypres,  Ghent,  Antwerp,  Brussels,  &c.,  vie  with 
each  other  in  magnificence  and  extent. 

Many  secular  buildings  also  remain  to  us  of  which  the 
architecture  is  Gothic.  Among  these  we  find  public  halls 
and  large  buildings  for  public  purposes — as  Westminster 
Hall,  or  the  Palace  of  Justice  at  Rouen ;  hospitals,  as 
that  at  Milan ;  or  colleges,  as  King's  College,  Cambridge, 

C  2 


20 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE, 


v\  ith  its  unrivalled  chapel.  Many  charming  minor  works, 
such  as  fountains,  wells  (Fig.  10),  crosses,  tombs,  monu- 
ments, and  the  fittings  of  the  interior  of  churches,  also 
remain  to  attest  the  versatility,  the  power  of  design,  and 
the  cultivated  taste  of  the  architects  of  the  Gothic  period. 


Fig.  10. — Well  at  Regen.sburg.     (Ioth  Cekturv.) 


ri<.-.  ^^. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN. 

ENGLISH  Gothic  architecture  has  been  usually  sub- 
divided into  three  periods  or  stages  of  advance- 
ment, corresponding  to  those  enumerated  on  page  1  ;  the 
early  stage  known  as  Early  English,  or  sometimes  as 
Lancet,  occupying  the  thirteenth  century  and  something 
more  ;  tha  middle  stage,  known  as  Decorated,  occupying 
most  of  the  fourteenth  century ;  and  the  latest  stage, 
known  as  Perpendicular,  occupying  the  fifteenth  century 
and  part  of  the  sixteenth. 

The  duration  of  each  of  these  coincides  approximately 
with  the  century,  the  transition  from  each  phase  to  the 
next  taking  place  chiefly  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century. 
Adding  the  periods  of  the  English  types  of  round  arched 
Architecture,  we  obtain  the  following  table  : — 

Fp  to  1066  or  up  to  middle  of  11th  century,  Saxon. 
A.D.  10(56  to  1189  or  up  to  end  of      12th        ,,         Kokman. 
A.i).  1189  to  1307  or  up  to  end  of       13th        ,,         Early  English. 
A.I)   1307  to  1377  or  up  to  end  of       14th        ,,         Decokated. 
A.D.  1377  to  l,o46  or  uj)  to  middle  of  16th        ,,         PERPENBicrLAii. 


22  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE, 

The  term  "Early  English"  (short  for  Early  English 
Gothic)  applied  to  Englis-h  thirteenth-century  architecture 
explains  itself. 

The  term  ''Lancet"  sometimes  applied  to  the  Early 
English  style,  is  derived  from  the  shape  of  the  ordinary 
window-heads,  which  resemble  the  point  of  a  lancet  in  out- 
line (Fig.  16).  "Whatever  term  be  adopted,  it  is  necessary 
to  remark  that  a  wide  difference  exists  between  the  earlier 
and  the  late  examples  of  this  period.  It  will  suffice  for  our 
purposes  if,  when  speaking  of  the  fully-developed  style  of 
the  late  examples,  we  refer  to  it  as  Advanced  Early  English. 

The  architecture  of  the  fourteenth  century  is  called 
"Decorated,"  from  the  great  increase  of  ornament,  espe- 
cially in  window  tracery  and  carved  enrichments. 

The  architecture  of  the  fifteenth  century  is  called 
"  Perpendicular,"  from  the  free  use  made  of  perpendicular 
lines,  both  in  general  features  and  in  ornaments,  especially 
in  the  tracery  of  the  windows  and  the  panelling  with 
which  walls  are  ornamented.* 

The  following  condensed  list,  partly  from  Morant,t  of  the 
most  striking  peculiarities  of  each  period,  may  be  found 
useful  for  reference,  and  is  on  that  account  placed  here, 
notwithstanding  that  it  contains  many  technical  words, 
for  the  meaning  of  which  the  student  must  consult  the 
Glossary  which  forms  part  of  this  volume. 

Axglo-Saxon — (Prior  to  the  Korman  Conquest). — 

Kude  work  and  rough  material  ;  -walls  mostly  of  ruhble  or  rag- 
stone  with  ashlar  at  the  angles  in  long  and  short  courses  alternately  ; 

*  The  abbreviations,  E.  E.,  Dec,  and  Perp.,  will  be  employed  to 
denote  these  three  periods. 

+  Notes  on  English  Architecture,  Costumes,  Monuments,  &c.  Privately 
printed.     Quoted  here  with  the  author's  pennission. 


GREAT   BRITAIN.  23 

openings  with  round  or  triangular  heads,  sometimes  divided  by  a  rude 
baluster.  Piers  plain,  square,  and  naiTOW.  Windows  splaj'ed  externally 
and  internall}'.  Rude  square  blocks  of  stone  in  place  of  ca})itals 
and  bases.  Mouldings  generally  semi-cylindrical  and  coarsely  chiselled. 
Corners  of  buildings  square  without  buttresses. 


NOKMAX 

William  I.    a.d.  1066. 

William  II.    ,,     1087. 

Henry  I.         ,,     1100. 

Stephen           „     1135. 

Henrv  II.        „     1154  to  1189, 

Arches  semicircular,  occasionally  stilted  ;  at  first  plain,  afterwards 
enriched  with  chevron  or  other  mouldings  ;  and  frequent  repetition  of 
same  ornament  on  each  stone.  Piers  low  and  massive,  cylindrical, 
square,  polygonal,  or  composed  of  clustered  shafts,  often  ornamented 
with  spiral  bands  and  mouldings.  Windows  generally  narrow  and 
splayed  internally  only ;  sometimes  double  and  divided  by  a  shaft. 
Walls  sometimes  a  series  of  arcades,  a  few  pierced  as  A^indows,  the  rest 
left  blank.  Doorwa3's  deeply  recessed  and  richly  ornamented  with 
bands  of  mouldings.  Doors  often  square  headed,  but  under  arches  the 
head  of  the  arch  filled  with  carving.  Capitals  carved  in  outline,  often 
grotesquely  sculptured  with  devices  of  animals  and  leaves.  Abacus 
square,  lower  edge  moulded.  Bases  much  resembling  the  classic  orders. 
The  mouldings  at  first  imperfectly  formed.  Pedestals  of  piers  square, 
Buttresses  plain,  with  broad  faces  and  small  projections.  Parapets  plain 
with  projecting'  corbel  table  under. 

Plain  mouldjngs  consist  of  chamfers,  round  or  pointed  rolls  at 
edges,  divided  from  plain  face  by  shallow  channels.  Enriched 
mouldings— the  chevrons  or  zig-zag,  the  billet  square  or  round,  the 
cable,  the  lozenge,  the  chain,  nail  heads,  and  others.  Niches  with 
figures  over  doorways.  Roofs  of  moderately  high  pitch,  and  open 
to  the  frame  ;  timbers  chiefly  king-post  trusses.  Towers  square  and 
massive — those  of  late  date  richly  adorned  with  arcades.  Openings  in 
towers  often  beautifully  grouped.  Vaulting  waggon-headed,  and  simple 
intersecting  vaults  of  semi-cii-cular  outline. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  style  in  reign  of  Henrj'^  II.,  details  of 
transitional  character  begin  to  appear.  Pointed  arch  with  Norman 
pier.  Arcades  of  intersecting  semi-circular  arches.  Norman  abacus 
blended  with  Early  English  foliage  in  capitals. 


24  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

Eauly  ExGLTsH.         Richard  I.    a.d.  ]1S9      Transition. 
John  ,,     1199. 

Henry  III.    ,,     1216. 
Edward  1.     ,,     1272  to  1307. 

General  proportions  more  slender,  and  height  of  walls,  colnnms,  &e., 
f!;reater.  Arches  poiutf  d,  generally  lancet ;  often  richly  moulded. 
Triforium  arches  and  arcades  open  with  trefoiled  heads.  Piers  slender, 
composed  of  a  central  circular  shaft  surrounded  by  several  smaller  ones, 
almost  or  quite  detached  ;  generally  with  horizontal  bands.  In  small 
buildings  plain  polygonal  and  circular  piers  are  used.  Capitals  concave 
in  outline,  ,  moulded,  or  carved  with  conventional  foliage  delicately 
executed  and  arranged  vertically.  The  abacus  always  undercut. 
Detached  shafts  often  of  Purbeck  marble.  Base  a  deep  hollow  between 
two  rounds.  Windows  at  first  long,  narrow,  and  deeply  splayed 
internally,  the  glass  within  a  few  inches  of  outer  face  of  wall  ;  later 
in  the  style  less  acute,  divided  by  muUions,  enriched  with  cusped 
circles  in  the  head,  often  of  three  or  more  lights, the  centre  light  being 
the  highest.  Doorways  often  deejily  recessed  and  enriched  with  slender 
shafts  and  elaborate  mouldings.  Shafts  detached.  Buttresses  about 
equal  in  projection  to  width,  with  but  one  set-ofF,  or  without  any. 
Buttresses  at  angles  always  in  pairs.  Mouldings  bold  and  deeply  imder- 
cut,  consisting  chiefly  of  round  mouldings  sometimes  pointed  or  with 
a  fillett,  separated  by  deep  hollows.  Great  depth  of  moulded  surface 
generally  arranged  on  rectangular  planes.  Hollows  of  irregular  curve 
sometimes  filled  with  dog-tooth  ornament  or  with  foliage.  Roofs  of 
high  pitch,  timbers  plain,  and  where  there  is  no  vault  open. 

Early  in  the  style  finials  were  plain  bunches  of  leaves  ;  towards  the 
close  beautifully  carved  finials  and  crockets  with  carved  foliage  of  con- 
ventional character  were  introduced.  Flat  surfaces  often  richly  dia- 
]iered.  Spires  broached.  Vaulting  pointed  with  diagonal  and  main 
ribs  only  ;  ridge  ribs  not  introduced  till  late  in  the  style  ;  bosses  at 
intersection  of  ribs. 

Decorated.        Edward    II.     a.d.  1307. 

Edward  III.        ,,     1377  to  1379. 

Proportions  less  lofty  than  in  the  previous  style.  Arches  mostly 
inclosing  an  equilateral  angle,  the  mouldings  often  continued  down  the 
pier.  Windows  large,  and  divided  into  two  or  more  lights  by  mullions. 
Tracery  in  the  head,  at  first  composed  of  geometrical  forms,  later  of 
flowing   character.      Clerestory  windows   generally  small.      Diamond 


GREAT    BRITAIX,  2i) 

shaped  piers  with  shafts  engaged.  Capitals  with  scroll  nmuhling  on 
under  side  of  abacus,  with  elegant  foliage  arranged  horizontally. 
Doors  frequently  without  shafts,  the  arch  moulding  running  down  tlie 
jambs.  Eich  doorways  and  windows  often  surrounded  with  triangular 
and  ogee-shaped  canopies.  Buttresses  in  stages  varioush'  ornamenteif. 
Parapet  ierced  with  quatrefoils  and  flowing  tracery.  Niches  panelled 
and  with  projecting  canopies.  Spires  loftj' ;  the  broach  rarely  used, 
parapets  and  angle  pinnacles  take  the  place  of  it.  Roofs  of  moderate 
pitch  open  to  the  framing.  Mouldings  bold  and  finely  proportioned, 
generally  in  groups,  the  groups  separated  from  each  other  by  hollows, 
composed  of  segments  of  circles.  Deep  hollows,  now  generally  con- 
fined to  inner  angles.  Mouldings  varying  in  size  and  kind,  arranged 
on  diagonal  as  well  as  rectangular  planes,  often  ornamented  with 
ball  flower.  Foliage  chiefly  of  ivy,  oak,  and  vine  leaves  ;  natural, 
also  conventional.  Rich  crockets,  finials,  and  pinnacles.  Vaulting 
with  intermediate  ribs,  ridge  ribs,  and  late  in  the  style  lierne  ribs,  and 
bosses. 

PEr.PEXDICrLAIl. 


Richard  II. 

A.i).  1377.     {Transition.) 

Henry  IV. 

,,     139S). 

Henry  V. 

,,     1413. 

Henry  VI. 

,,     1422. 

Edward  IV. 

„     1461. 

Edward  V. 

,,     1483. 

Richard  ill. 

,,     14S3. 

Henry  VII. 

,,     148.5. 

Henry  VLII. 

„     150&  to  154(). 

TrDoii. 


Arches  at  fir.st  inclosing  an  equilateral  triangle,  afterwards  obtusely 
pointed  and  struck  from  four  centres.  Piers  generally  oblong  ;  longi- 
tudinal direction  north  and  south,  ilouldings  continued  from  base 
through  arch.  Capitals  with  mouldings  large,  angular,  and  few,  with 
abacus  and  bell  imperfectly  defined.  Foliage  of  conventional  character, 
shallow,  and  square  in  outline.  Bases  polygonal.  "Windows  whei'e 
lofty  divided  into  stories  by  transoms.  The  mullions  often  continued 
perpendicularly  into  the  head.  Canopies  of  ogee  character  enriched 
with  crockets.  Doors  generally  with  square  label  over  arch,  the 
spandrels  filled  with  ornament.  Buttresses  with  bold  projection  often 
ending  in  finials.  Flying  buttresses  pierced  with  tracery.  Walls 
profusely  ornamented  with  panelling.  Parapets  embattled  and  panelled. 
(.)pen  timber  roofs  of  moderate  pitch,  of  eIa1)orate  construction,  often 
with  hammer  beams,  richly  ornamented  with  moulded  timbers,  carved 


26 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


ligures  of  angels  and  with  pierced  tracery  in  spandrels.  Roofs  some- 
times of  very  Hat  pitch.  Lofty  clerestories.  Mouldings  large,  coarse, 
and  with  wide  and  shallow  hollows  and  hard  wiry  edges,  meagre  iu 
api)earance  and  wanting  in  minute  and  delicate  detail,  generally 
arranged  on  diagonal  planes.  Early  iu  the  style  the  mouldings  partake 
of  decorated  character. 

In  the  Tudor  period  depressed  four-centered  arch  prevails  ;  transoms 
of  windows  battlemented.  Tudor  flower,  rose,  portcullis,  and  fleur-de- 
lis  common  ornaments.  Crockets  and  pinnacles  much  projected. 
Koofs  of  low  pitch. 

Vaulting.  Fan  vaulting,  with  tracery  and  pendants  elaborately 
carved. 

Other  modes  of  distinguishing  the  periods  of  English 
Gothic  have  been  proposed  by  writers  of  authority.  The 
division  given  above  is  that  of  Hickman,  and  is  generally 
adopted.  A  more  minute  subdivision  and  a  different  set 
of  names  were  proposed  by  Sharpe  as  follows  : — 

Romanesque        Saxon          a.d.  to  1066. 

Norman  ,,  1066  to  1145. 

Gothic                  Transitional  ,,  1145  to  1190. 

Lancet  ,,  1190  to  1245. 

Geometrical  ,,  1245  to  1315. 

Curvilinear  „  1315  to  1360. 

Rectilinear  ,,  1360  to  1550. 

Of  the  new  names  proposed  by  Mr.  Sharpe  "  tran- 
sitional"  explains  itself;  and  "geometrical,  curvilinear, 
and  rectilinear  "  refer  to  the  characters  of  the  window 
tracery  at  the  different  periods  which  they  denote.* 

The  history  of  English  Gothic  proper  may  be  said  to 
begin  with  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  coinciding  very  nearly 
with  the  commencement  of  the  period  named  by  Mr.  Sharpe 
transitional  (1145  to  1190),  when  Norman  architecture 
was  changing  into  Gothic.  This  histoiy  we  propose  now  to 
*  See  examples  iu  Chapter  V.  and  in  Glossary. 


GREAT    BRITAIN.  27 

consider  somewhat  in  detail,  dividing  the  buildings  in  the 
simplest  possible  way,  namely,  into  floors,  walls,  columns, 
roofs,  openings,  and  ornaments.  After  this  we  shall  have 
to  consider  the  mode  in  which  materials  were  used  by  the 
builders  of  the  Gothic  period,  i.e.  the  construction  of  the 
buildings ;  and  the  general  artistic  principles  which  guided 
their  architects,  i.e.  the  design  of  the  buildings. 

It  may  be  useful  to  students  in  and  near  London  to  give 
Sir  G.  Gilbert  Scott's  list  of  striking  London  examples  *  of 
Gothic  architecture  (with  the  omission  of  such  examples  as 
are  more  antiquarian  than  architectural  in  their  interest) : — 

Norman  (temp.  Conquest). — The  Keep  and  Cliapel  of  the  Tower  of 
London. 

Advanced  Norman. — Chapel  of  St.  Catherine,  Westminster  Abbey  ; 
St.  Bartholomew's  Prior}',  Smithiield. 

Transitional. — The  round  part  of  the  Temjile  Church. 

Early  English. — Eastern  part  of  the  Temple  Church  ;  Choir  and 
Lady  Chapel  of  St.  Mary  Overy,  Southwark  ;  Chapel  of  Lambeth 
Palace. 

Advanced  Early  English  (passing  to  decorated). — Eastern  part  of 
Westminster  Abbey  generally  and  its  Chapter  House. 

Early  Decorated. — Choir  of  Westminster,  (but  this  has  been  much 
influenced  by  the  design  of  the  earlier  parts  adjacent) ;  Chapei  of  St. 
Etheldreda,  Ely  Place,  Holborn. 

Late  Decorated. — The  three  bays  of  the  Cloister  at  Westminster 
opposite  the  entrance  to  Chapter  House  ;  Crypt  of  St.  Stephen's 
Chapel,  Westminster ;   Dutch  Church,  Austin  Friars. 

Early  Perx^endicular.  — South  and  west  wallvs  of  the  Cloister,  West- 
minster ;  Westminster  Hall. 

Advanced  Perpendicular  (Tudor  pej'iod). — Henry  VII. 's  Chapel; 
Double  Cloister  of  St.  Stephen's,  Westminster. 

*  Address  to  Conference  of  Architects,  Builder,  June  24,  1876. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. — EXGLAXD. 

ANALYSIS    OF    BUILDINGS.  —  FLOOR,     WALLS,     TOWERS,     GABLES, 
COLUMNS. 


Floor,  or  Playi. 

THE  excellences  or  defects  of  a  building  are  more  due 
to  the  shape  and  size  of  its  floor  and,  incidentally, 
of  the  walls  and  columns  or  piers  which  inclose  and  sub- 
divide its  floor  than  to  anything ,  else  whatever.  A  map  of 
the  floor  and  walls  (usually  showing  also  the  position  of  the 
doors  and  windows),  is  known  as  a  plan,  but  by  a  pardon- 
able figui'e  of  speech  the  plan  of  a  building  is  often  under 
stood  to  mean  the  shape  and  size  and  arrangement  of  its 
floor  and  walls  themselves,  instead  of  simply  the  drawing 
representing  them.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  word  plan 
will  be  used  in  this  volume. 

The  plan  of  a  Gothic  Cathedral  has  been  described,  and 
it  has  been  already  remarked  that  before  the  Gothic  period 
had  commenced  the  dimensions  of  great  churches  had  been 
very  much  increased.  The  generally  received  disposition 
of  the  parts  of  a  church  had  indeed  been  already  settled 


ANALYSIS  :    PLAN.  29 

or  nearly  so.  There  were  consequently  few  radical  altera- 
tions in  church  plans  during  the  Gothic  period.  One,  how- 
ever, took  place  in  England  in  the  abandonment  of  the 
apse. 

At  first  the  apsidal  east  end,  common  in  the  Norman  times, 
was  retained.  For  example,  it  is  found  at  Canterbury, 
where  the  choir  and  transept  are  transitional,  having  been 
begun  soon  after  1174  and  completed  about  1184  ;  but  the 
eastern  end  of  Chichester,  which  belongs  to  the  .'■ame  period 
(the  transition),  displays  the  square  east  end,  and  this 
termination  was  almost  invariably  preferred  in  our  country 
after  the  twelfth  century. 

A  great  amount  of  regularity  marks  the  plans  of  those 
great  churches  which  had  vaulted  roofs,  as  will  be  readily 
understood  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  vaults  were 
divided  into  equal  and  similar  compartments,  and  that  the 
points  of  support  had  to  be  placed  with  corresponding  regu- 
larity. Where,  however,  some  controlling  cause  of  this 
nature  was  not  at  work  much  picturesque  irregularity  pre- 
vailed in  the  planning  of  English  Gothic  buildings  of  all 
periods.  The  plans  of  our  Cathedrals  are  noted  for  their 
great  length  in  proportion  to  their  width,  for  the  considerable 
length  given  to  the  transepts,  and  for  the  occurrence  in 
many  cases  {e.g.  Salisbury,  thirteenth  century)  of  a  second 
transept.  The  principal  altei'ations  which  took  place  in 
plan  as  time  went  on  originated  in  the  desire  to  concen- 
trate material  as  much  as  possible  on  points  of  support, 
leaving  the  walls  between  them  thin  and  the  openings 
wide,  and  in  the  use  of  Hying  buttresses,  the  feet  of  which 
occupy  a  considerable  space  outside  the  main  walls  of  the 
church.  The  plans  of  piers  and  columns  also  underwent 
the  alterations  which  will  be  presently  described.* 
*  For  ilhistrations  consult  the  Glossary  iniJer  Pier. 


30  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

Buildings  of  a  circular  shape  on  plan  are  very  rare,  but 
octagonal  ones  are  not  uncommon.  The  finest  chapter- 
houses attached  to  our  Cathedrals  are  octagons,  with  a 
central  pier  to  carry  the  vaulting.  On  the  whole,  play  of 
shape  on  plan  was  less  cultivated  in  England  than  in  some 
continental  countries. 

The  plans  of  domestic  buildings  are  usually  simple,  but 
grew  more  elaborate  and  extensive  as  time  went  on.  The 
cloister  with  dwelling-rooms  and  common-rooms  entered 
from  its  walk,  formed  the  •  model  on  which  colleges,  hos- 
pitals, and  alms-houses  were  planned.  The  castle,  already 
described,  was  the  residence  of  the  wealthy  during  the 
earlier  part  of  the  Gothic  period,  and  when,  in  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  houses  which  were  rather 
dwellings  than  fortresses  began  to  be  erected,  the  hall, 
with  a  large  bay  window  and  a  raised  floor  or  dais  at 
one  end  and  a  mighty  open  fire-place,  was  always  the  most 
conspicuous  feature  in  the  plan.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
Gothic  period  the  plan  of  a  great  dwelling,  such  as 
Warwick  Castle  (Fig.  8),  began  to  show  many  of 
the  features  which  distinguish  a  mansion  of  the  present 
day. 

In  various  parts  of  the  country  remains  of  magnificent 
Gothic  dwelling-houses  of  the  fourteenth  and  and  fifteenth 
centuries  exist,  and  long  before  the  close  of  the  perpen- 
dicular period  we  had  such  mansions  as  Penshurst  and 
Hever,  such  palaces  as  Windsor  and  Wells,  such  castel- 
lated dwellings  as  Warwick  and  Haddon,  differing  in  many 
respects  but  all  agreeing  in  the  possession  of  a  great  central 
hall.  Buildings  for  public  purposes  also  often  took  the 
form  of  a  great  hall.  Westminster  Hall  may  be  cited  as 
the  finest  example  of  such  a  structure,  not  only  in  England 
but  in  Europe. 


ANALYSIS  :    WALLS.  31 

The  student  who  desires  to  obtain  anything  beyond  tho 
most  superficial  acquaintance  with  architecture  must  en- 
deavour to  obtain  enough  familiarity  with  ground  plans,  to 
be  able  to  sketch,  measure,  and  lay  down  a  plan  to  scale 
and  to  read  one.  The  plan  shows  to  the  experienced 
architect  the  nature,  arrangement,  and  qualities  of  a  build- 
ing better  than  any  other  drawing,  and  a  better  memo- 
randum of  a  building  is  preserved  if  a  fairly  correct  sketch 
of  its  plan,  or  of  the  plan  of  important  parts  of  it,  is 
preserved  than  if  written  notes  are  alone  relied  upon. 


Walls. 

The  walls  of  Gothic  buildings  are  generally  of  stone  ; 
brick  being  the  exception.  They  were  in  the  transitional 
and  Early  English  times  extremely  thick,  and  became 
thinner  afterwards.  All  sorts  of  ornamental  masonry  were 
introduced  into  them,  so  that  diapers,*  bands,  arcades, 
mouldings,  and  inlaid  patterns  are  all  to  be  met  with 
occasionally,  especially  in  districts  where  building  materials 
of  varied  colours,  or  easy  to  work,  are  plentiful.  In  the 
perpendicular  period  the  walls  were  systematically  covered 
with  panelling  closely  resembling  the  tracery  of  the 
windows  [e.g.,  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel  at  Westminster). 

The  wall  of  a  building  ordinai'ily  requires  some  kind  of 
base  and  some  kind  of  top.  The  base  or  plinth  in  English 
Gothic  buildings  was  usually  well  marked  and  bold,  espe- 
cially in  the  perpendicular  pei'iod,  and  it  is  seldom  absent. 
The  eaves  of  the  roof  in  some  cases  overhang  the  walls, 
resting  on  a  simple  stone  band,  called  an  eaves-course, 
and  constitute  the  crowning  feature.  In  many  instances, 
*  For  illustration  consult  the  Glossary. 


32  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

however,  the  eaves  are  concealed  behind  a  parapet  *  which 
is  often  carried  on  a  moulded  cornice  or  on  corbels.  This, 
in  the  E.  E.  period,  was  usually  veiy  simple.  In  the  Dec. 
it  was  panelled  with  ornamental  panels,  and  often  made 
very  beautiful.  In  the  Perp.  it  was  frequently  battle- 
mented  as  well  as  panelled. 

A  distinguishing  feature  of  Gothic  walls  is  the  buttress. 
It  existed,  but  only  in  the  form  of  a  flat  pier  of  very  slight 
projection  in  Norman,  as  in  almost  all  Romanesque  build- 
ings, but  in  the  Gothic  period  it  became  developed. 

The  buttress,  like  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  Gothic 
architecture,  originated  in  the  use  of  stone  vaults  and  the 
need  for  strong  piers  at  these  points,  upon  which  the 
thrust  and  weight  of  those  vaults  were  concentrated.  The 
use  of  very  large  openings,  for  wide  windows  full  of 
stained  glass  also  made  it  increasingly  necessary  in  the 
Dec.  and  Perp.  periods  to  fortify  the  walls  at  regular 
points. 

A  buttress  *  is,  in  fact,  a  piece  of  wall  set  athwart  the 
main  wall,  usually  projecting  consideiably  at  the  baee  and 
diminished  by  successive  reductions  of  its  mass  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  top,  and  so  placed  as  to  covinteract  the  thrust 
of  some  arch  or  vault  inside.  It  had  gieat  artistic  value  ; 
in  the  feeble  and  level  light  of  our  Northern  climate  it 
casts  bold  shadows  and  catches  bright  lights,  and  so  adds 
greatly  to  the  architectural  effect  of  the  exterior.  In  the 
E,  E.  the  buttress  was  simple  and  ordinarily  projected 
about  its  own  width.  In  the  Dec.  it  obtained  much  more 
projection,  was  constructed  with  several  diminutions  (tech- 
nically called  weatherings),  and  was  considerably  orna- 
mented. In  the  Perp.  it  was  frequently  enriched  by 
panelling.  The  buttresses  in  the  Dec.  period  are  often  set 
*  For  illustrations  consult  the  Glossary. 


ANALYSIS  :    BUTTRESSES.  33 

diagonally  at  the  corner  of  a  building  or  tower.  In  the 
E.  E.  period  this  was  never  done. 

The  flying  buttress '"'  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
features  of  the  exterior  of  those  Gothic  buildings  which 
possessed  elaborate  stone  vaults.  It  was  a  contrivance  for 
providing  an  abutment  to  counterbalance  the  outward  pres- 
sure of  the  vault  covering  the  highest  and  central  parts 
of  the  building  in  cases  where  that  vault  rested  upon  and 
abutted  against  walls  which  themselves  were  carried  by 
arches,  and  Avere  virtually  internal  walls,  so  that  no  but- 
tress could  be  carried  up  from  the  ground  to  steady  them. 

A  pier  of  masonry,  sometimes  standing  alone,  sometimes 
thrown  out  from  the  aisle  wall  opposite  the  point  to  be 
propped  formed  the  solid  part  of  this  buttress ;  it  was 
carried  to  the  requisite  height  and  a  flying  arch  spanning 
the  whole  width  of  the  aisles  was  thrown  across  from  it 
to  the  wall  at  the  point  Avhence  the  vault  sprung.  The 
pier  itself  was  in  many  cases  loaded  by  an  enormous 
pinnacle,  so  that  its  weight  might  combine  with  the  pres- 
sure transmitted  along  the  slope  of  the  flying  arch  to  give 
a  resultant  which  should  fall  within  the  base  of  the 
buttress.  The  back  of  such  an  arch  was  generally  used  as 
a  water  channel. 

The  forest  of  flying  buttresses  round  many  French 
cathedrals  produces  an  almost  bewildering  effect,  as,  for 
instance,  at  the  east  end  of  iSotre  Dame; — our  English 
specimens,  at  Westminster  Abbey  for  example,  are 
comparatively  simple. 

Toivers. 

The   gable    and    the    tower    are    developments    of    the 
walls  of  the  building.     Gothic  is  ^xtr  excellence  the  style 
*  For  illustration  consult  the  Glossary  under  Flying  buttress. 
G  A  D 


34  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

of  towers.  Many  towers  were  built  detached  from  all 
other  buildings,  but  no  great  Gothic  building  is  complete 
without  one  main  tower  and  some  subordinate  ones. 

In  the  E.  E.  style  church  towers  were  often  crowned  by 
low  spires,  becoming  more  lofty  as  the  style  advanced.  In 
the  Dec.  style  lofty  spires  were  almost  universal.  In  the 
Perp.  the  tower  rarely  has  a  visible  roof.  * 

The  artistic  value  of  towers  in  giving  unity  coupled 
with  variety  to  a  group  of  buildings  can  hardly  be 
exaggerated. 

The  positions  which  towers  occupy  ai'e  various.  They 
produce  the  greatest  effect  when  central,  i.e.  placed  over 
the  crossing  of  the  nave  and  transepts.  Lichfield,  Chichester, 
and  Salisbury  may  be  referred  to  as  examples  of  cathedrals 
with  towers  in  this  position  and  surmounted  by  spires. 
Canterbury,  York,  Lincoln,  and  Gloucester  are  specimens 
of  the  effectiveness  of  the  tower  similarly  placed,  but  with- 
out a  spire  (Fig.  12^).  At  Wells  a  fine  central  octagon 
occupies  the  crossing,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  skill  with 
which  it  is  fitted  to  the  nave  and  aisles  internally.  Next 
to  central  towers  rank  a  pair  of  towers  at  the  western  end. 
of  the  building.  These  exist  at  Lichfield  w^ith  their  spires  ; 
they  exist  (square-topped)  at  Lincoln,  and  (though  carried 
up  since  the  Gothic  period)  at  Westminster.f  Many 
churches  have  a  single  tower  in  this  position  (Fig.  13). 

The  obvious  purpose  of  a  tower,  beyond  its  serviceable- 
ness  as  a  feature  of  the  building  and  as  a  landmai'k,  is  to 
lift  up  a  belfry  high  into  the  air  :  accordingly,  almost 
without  exception,  church  and  cathedral  towers  are  de- 
signed with  a  large  upper  story,   pierced  by  openings  of 

*  For  remarks  on  Spires,  see  Chap.  V. 

t  York,  Lichfield,  and  Lincoln,  are  the  cathedrals  distinguished  by 
the  possession  of  three  towers. 


ANALYSIS  :    TOWERS. 


35 


great  size  and  height  called  the  belfry  stage  ;  and  the 
Avhole  artistic  treatment  of  the  tower  is  subordinate  to 
this  feature.  It  is  also  very  often  the  case  that  a  turret  to 
contain  a  spiral  staircase  which  may  afford  the  means  of 
access  to  the  upper  part  of  the  tower,  forms  a  prominent 
feature  of  its  whole  height,  especially  in  the  Dec.  and 
Perp.   periods. 


Fig.  12.— Lincoln  Cathedral.     (Mostly  Early  English.) 

In  domestic  and  monastic  buildings,  low  towers  were 
frequently  employed  with  excellent  effect.  Many  castles 
retained  the  Norman  keep,  or  square  strong  tower,  which 
had  served  as  the  nucleus  round  which  other  buildings  had 
afterwards  clustered  ;  but  where  during  the  Gothic  period 
a  castle  was  built,  or  re-built,  without  such  a  keep,  one  or 
more  towers,  often  of  great  beauty,  were  alwajs  added. 
Examples  abound ;  good  ones  will  be  found  in  the 
Edwardian  castles  in  Wales  (end  of  thirteenth  centm*y),  as 
for  example  at  Conway  and  Caernarvon. 

D  2 


36  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

Gables. 

The  gable  forms  a  distinctive  Gothic  feature.  The  gables 
crowned  those  parts  of  a  great  church  in  which  the  skill 
of  the  architect  was  directed  to  producing  a  regular  com- 
position, often  called  a  front,  or  a  fa(;ade.  The  west 
fronts  of  Cathedrals  were  the  most  important  architectural 
designs  of  this  sort,  and  with  them  we  may  include  the 
ends  of  the  transepts  and  the  east  fronts. 

The  same  parts  of  parish  churches  are  often  excellent 
compositions.  The  gable  of  the  nave  always  formed  the 
central  feature  of  the  main  front.  This  was  flanked  by  the 
gables,  or  half-gables,  of  the  aisles  where  there  were  no 
towers,  or  by  the  lower  portions  of  the  towers.  As  a  rule 
the  centre  and  'sides  of  the  fagade  are  separated  by  but- 
tresses, or  some  other  mode  of  marking  a  vertical  division, 
and  the  composition  is  also  divided  by  bands  of  mould- 
ings or  otherwise,  horizontally  into  storeys.  Some  of  the 
horizontal  divisions  are  often  strongly  marked,  especially 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  building,  whei'e  in  early  examples 
there  is  sometimes  in  addition  to  the  plinth,  or  base  of  the 
wall,  an  arcade  or  a  band  of  sculpture  running  across  the 
entire  front  [e.g.  east  front  of  Lincoln  Cathedral).  The 
central  gable  is  always  occupied  by  a  large  window — or  in 
early  buildings  a  group  of  windows — sometimes  two  storeys 
in  height.  A  great  side  window  usually  occurs  at  the  end 
of  each  aisle.  Below  these  great  windows  are  introduced, 
at  any  rate  in  west  fronts,  the  doorways,  which,  even  in  the 
finest  English  examples,  are  comparatively  small.  The 
gable  also  contains  as  a  rule  one  or  more  windows  often 
circular  which  light  the  space  above  the  vaults. 

Part  of  the  art  in  arranging  such  a  composition  is  to  com- 
bine and  yet  constrast  its  horizontal  and  vertical  elements. 


h'lo.  lo. — !St.  rjEUKE,  Caen,  Toweu  and  S.'iee.      SputE,  lo0'2.) 


38 


GOTHIC    AKCniTECTURE. 


The  horizontal  lines,  or  features,  are  those  which  serve  to 
bind   the  whole  toi^ether,  and  the  vertical  ones  are  those 


Fig.  14.— House  at  Chester.    (1(jth  Century.) 


which  give  that  upward  tendency  which  is  the  great  charm 
and  peculiar  characteristic  of  Gothic  architecture.  It  is 
essential  for  the  masses  of  solid  masonry  and  the  openings 


ANALYSIS  :    GABLES.  39 

to  be  properly  contrasted  and  proportioned  to  each  other, 
and  here,  as  in  every  part  of  a  building,  such  ornaments 
and  ornamental  features  as  are  introduced  must  be  de- 
signed to  contribute  to  the  enrichment  of  the  building 
as  a  whole,  so  that  no  part  shall  be  conspicuous  either 
by  inharmonious  treatment,  undue  plainness,  or  excessive 
enrichment. 

During  the  transition  the  gable  became  steeper  in  pitch 
than  the  comparatively  moderate  slope  of  Norman  times. 
In  the  E.  E.  it  was  acutely  pointed,  in  the  Dec.  the  usual 
slope  was  that  of  the  two  sides  of  an  equilateral  triangle  : 
in  the  Perp.  it  became  extremely  flat  and  cea.sed  to  be  so 
marked  a  feature  as  it  had  formeily  been.  In  domestic  build- 
ings the  gable  was  employed  in  the  most  effective  manner, 
and  town  dwelling-houses  were  almost  invariably  built 
their  gable  ends  to  the  street  (Fig.  14). 

A  very  effective  form  of  wall  was  frequently  made  use  of 
in  dwelling-houses.  This  consisted  of  a  sturdy  frame-work 
of  stout  timbers  exposed  to  view,  with  the  spaces  between 
them  filled  in  with  plaster.  Of  this  work,  which  is  known 
as  half-timbered  work,  many  beautiful  specimens  remain 
dating  from  the  fifteenth  and  following  centuries  (Figs.  14 
and  15),  and  a  few  of  earlier  date.  In  those  parts  of  England 
where  tiles  are  manufactured  such  frame-work  was  often 
covered  by  tiles  instead  of  being  filled  in  with  plastering. 
In  half-timbered  houses,  the  fire-places  and  chimneys,  and 
^sometimes  also  the  basement  storys,  are  usually  of  brick- 
work or  masonry;  so  are  the  side  walls  in  the  case  of 
houses  in  streets.  It  was  usual  in  such  buildings  to  cause 
the  upper  storeys  to  overhang  the  lower  ones. 


40  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


Cohimns  and  Piers. 


The  columns  and  piers  of  a  building  virtually  form 
portions  of  its  walls,  so  far  as  aiding  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  roof  is  concerned,  and  are  appropriately  considered 
in  connection  with  them.  In  Gothic  architecture  very 
little  use  is  made  of  columns  on  the  outside  of  a  building, 
and  the  porticoes  and  external  rows  of  columns  proper  to 
the  classic  styles  are  quite  unknown.  On  the  other 
hand  the  series  of  piers,  or  columns,  from  which  spring 
the  arches  which  separate  the  central  avenues  of  nave, 
transepts  and  choir  from  the  aisles,  are  among  the  most 
prominent  features  in  every  church.  These  piers  varied 
in  each  century.'- 

The  Norman  piers  had  been  frequently  circular  or 
polygonal,  but  sometimes  nearly  square,  and  usually  of 
enormous  mass.  Thus,  at  Durham  (Norman),  oblong  piers 
of  about  eleven  feet  in  diameter  occur  alternately  with 
round  ones  of  about  seven  feet.  In  transitional  examples 
columns  of  more  slender  proportions  were  employed  either 
(as  in  the  choir  of  Canterbury)  as  single  shafts  or  col- 
lected into  groups.  Where  grouping  took  place  it  was 
intended  that  each  shaft  of  the  group  should  be  seen  to 
support  some  definite  feature  of  the  superincumbent  struc- 
ture, as  where  a  separate  group  of  .mouldings  springs 
from  each  shaft  in  a  doorway,  and  this  principle  was 
very  steadily  adhered  to  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
Gothic  pei'iod.'' 

Through  the  E.  E.  period  groups  of  shafts  are  generally 
employed ;  they  are  often  formed  of  detached  shafts 
clustering  round  a  central  one,  and  held  together  at 
*  For  illustrations  consult  the  Glossary  under  Pier. 


Fig.  15.— Houses  at  Lisieux,  France.    (16th  Ckxtcet.) 


42  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

intervals  by  bands  or  belts  of  masonry,  and  generally  the 
entire  group  is  neai-ly  circular  on  plan.  In  the  succeeding 
century  (Dec.  period)  the  piers  also  take  the  form  of 
groups  of  shafts,  but  they  are  generally  carved  out  of  one 
block  of  stone,  and  the  ordinary  arrangement  of  the  pier 
is  on  a  lozenge-shaped  plan.  In  the  Perp.,  the  piers  retain 
the  same  general  character,  but  are  slenderer,  and  the  shafts 
have  often  shrunk  to  nothing  more  than  reedy  mouldings. 

The  column  is  often  employed  in  Transitional  and  E,  E. 
churches  as  a  substitute  for  piers  carrying  arches.  In 
every  period  small  columns  are  freely  used  as  ornamental 
features.  They  are  constantly  met  with,  for  example,  in 
the  jambs  of  doorways  and  of  windows. 

Every  column  is  divided  naturally  into  thi-ee  parts,  its 
base,  or  foot ;  its  shaft,  which  forms  the  main  body ;  and 
its  capital,  or  head.  Each  of  these  went  through  a  series  of 
modifications.  Part  of  the  base  usually  consisted  of  a  flat 
stone  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  column,  sometimes 
called  a  plinth,-  and  upon  this  stood  the  moulded  base 
which  gradually  diminished  to  the  size  of  the  shaft.  This 
plain  stone  was  in  E.  E.  often  squaie,  and  in  that  case  the 
corner  spaces  which  were  not  covered  by  the  mouldings 
of  the  base  were  often  occupied  by  an  elegantly  carved 
leaf.  In  Dec.  and  Perp.  buildings  the  lower  part  of  the 
base  was  often  polygonal,  and  frequently  moulded  so  as 
to  make  it  into  a  pedestal."^ 

The  proportions  of  shafts  varied  extraordinarily  ;  they 
were,  as  a  rule,  extremely  slender  when  their  purpose  was 
purely  decorative,  and  comparatively  sturdy  when  they 
really  served  to  carry  a  weight. 

The  capital  of  the  column  has  been  perhaps  the  most 
conspicuous  feature  in  the  architecture  of  every  age  and 
*  For  illustrations  consult  tlie  Glossary  under  Base. 


ANALYSIS  :    COLUMNS    AND    PIERS.  43 

every  country,  and  it  is  one  of  the  features  whicli  a  student 
may  make  use  of  as  an  indication  of  date  and  style  of 
buildings,  very  much  as  the  botanist  employs  the  flower  as 
an  index  to  the  genus  and  species  of  plants.  The  capital 
almost  invariably  starts  from  a  ring,  called  the  neck  of 
the  column.  This  serves  to  mark  the  end  of  the  shaft  and 
the  commencement  of  the  capital.  Above  this  follows 
what  is  commonly  called  the  bell, — the  main  portion  of  the 
capital,  which  is  that  part  upon  which  the  skill  of  the 
carver  and  the  taste  of  the  designer  can  be  most  freely 
expended,  and  on  the  top  of  the  bell  is  placed  the  abacus, 
a  flat  block  of  stone  upon  the  upper  surface  of  which  is 
built  the  superstructure  or  is  laid  the  beam  or  block  which 
the  column  has  to  support.  The  shape  and  ornaments 
given  to  the  abacus  are  often  of  considerable  importance 
as  indicat'ons  of  the  position  in  architectural  history  which 
the  building  in  which  it  occurs  should  occupy. 

The  Norman  capital  differed  to  some  extent  from 
the  Romanesque  capitals  of  other  parts  of  Europe.  It  was 
commonly  of  a  heavy,  strong  looking  shape,  and  is  often 
appropriately  called  the  cushion  capital.  In  its  simpler 
forms  the  cushion  capital  is  nothing  but  a  cubical  block 
of  stone  with  its  lower  corners  rounded  off  to  make  it  flt 
the  circular  shaft  on  which  it  is  placed,  and  with  a  slab  by 
way  of  abacus  placed  upon  it.  In  later  Noi-man  and 
transitional  work  the  faces  of  this  block  and  the  edges  of 
the  abacus  are  often  richly  moulded.  By  degrees,  however, 
as  the  transition  to  E.  E.  approached,  a  new  sort  of 
capital  *  was  introduced,  having  the  outline  of  the  bell 
hollow  instead  of  convex.  The  square  faces  of  the  Norman 
capital  of  course  disappeared,  and  the  square  abacus  soon 
(at  least  in  this  country)  became  circular,  involving  no  small 
*  For  illustrations  cousult  the  Glossary. 


44 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


loss  of  vigour  in  the  appearance  of  the  work.  The  bell  of 
this  capital  was  often  decorated  with  rich  mouldings,  and 
had  finely-designed  and  characteristic  foliage,  which  almost 
always  seemed  to  grow  up  the  c^ipital,  and  represented  a 
conventional  kind  of  leaf  easily  recognised  when  once 
seen. 

In  the  Dec.  period  the  capitals  have,  as  a  rule,  fewer  and 
less  elaborate  mouldings ;  the  foliage  is  often  very  beauti- 
fully carved  in  imitation  of  natural  leaves,  and  wreathed 
round  the  capital  instead  of  growing  up  it.  In  the  Perp. 
this  feature  is  in  every  Avay  less  ornate,  the  mouldings 
are  plainer,  and  the  foliage,  often  absent,  is,  when  it  occurs, 
conventional  and  stiff.  Polygonal  capitals  are  common  in 
this  period. 


Later  Jt'(»-mun  CajiltJ-l. 


CHAPTER  V. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. — ENGLAND. 

ANALYSIS    OF    BUILDINGS    {continued) — OPENINGS,     ROOFS, 
SPIRES,    ORNAMENTS,    STAINED    GLASS,    SCULPTURE. 

Openings  and  Arches. 

THE  openings  {i.e.  doors  and  windows)  in  the  walls  of 
English  Gothic  buildings  are  occasionally  covered 
by  flat  heads  or  lintels,  but  this  is  exceptional ;  ordinarily 
they  have  arched  heads.  The  shape  of  the  arch  varies  at 
all  periods.  Architects  always  felt  themselves  free  to 
adopt  any  shape  which  best  met  the  requirements  of 
any  special  case ;  but  at  each  period  there  was  one  shape 
of  arch  which  it  was  customary  to  use. 

In  the  first  transitional  period  (end  of  twelfth  century) 
semicircular  and  pointed  arches  are  both  met  with,  and 
are  often  both  employed  in  the  same  part  of  the  same 
building.  The  mouldings  and  enrichments  which  are 
common  in  Norman  work  are  usually  still  in  use.  In  tho 
E.  E.  period  the  doorways  are  almost  invariably  rather 
acutely  pointed,  the  arched  heads  are  enriched  by  a  large 
mass  of  rich  mouldings,  and  the  jambs  *  have  usually  a 
series  of  small  columns,  each  of  which  is  intended  to  carry 
a  portion  of  the  entire  group  of  mouldings.  Large  doorways 
are  often  subdivided  into  two,  and  frequently  approached 
*  For  iUustratious  consult  the  Glossary  under  Jamb. 


46 


GOTHIC    AKCHITECTURE. 


by  porches.  A  most  beautiful  example  occurs  in  the 
splendid  west  entrance  to  Ely  Cathedral.  Other  examples 
will  be  found  at  Lichfield  (Fig.  1)  and  Salisbury.  It  was 
not  uncommon  to  cover  doorways  with  a  lintel,  the  whole 
being  under  an  archway  ;  this  left  a  space  above  the  head 
of  the  door  which  was  occupied  by  carving  often  of  great 
beauty.  Ornamental  gables  are  often  formed  over  the  en- 
trances of  churches,  and  are  richly  sculptured  ;  but  though 
beautiful,  these  features  rarely  attained  magnificence. 
The  most  remarkable  entrance  to  an  English  cathedral  is 
the  west  portal  of  Peterborough — a  conJposition  of  lofty 
and  richly  moulded  arches  built 
in  front  of  the  original  west  wall. 
A  portal  on  a  smaller  scale,  but 
added  in  the  same  manner  adorns 
±he  west  front  of  Wells.  As  a 
less  exceptional  example  we  may 
refer  to  the  entrance  to  West- 
minster Abbey  at  the  end  of  the 
north  transept  (now  under  restora- 
tion), which  must  have  been  a 
noble  example  of  an  E.  E.  portal 
when  in  its  perfect  state. 

The  windows  in  this  style  were 
almost  always  long,  narrow,  and 
with  a  pointed  head  resembling 
the  blade  of  a  lancet  (Fig.  16). 
The  glass  is  generally  near  the 
outside  face  of  the  wall,  and  the  sides  of  the  opening  are 
splayed  towards  the  inside.  It  was  very  customary  to 
place  these  lancet  windows  in  groups.  The  best  known  group 
is  the  celebrated  one  of  "the  five  sisters,"  five  lofty  single 
lights,  occupying  the  eastern  and  of  one  of  the  transepts  of 


Fig.  16. — Lancet  Window. 
(12th  Century.) 


ANALYSIS  :    WINDOWS. 


47 


Yoi'k  Minster.  A  common  arrangement  in  designing  such 
a  group  was  to  make  the  central  light  the  highest,  and 
to  graduate  the  height  of  the  others.  It  after  a  time  be- 
came customary  to  render  the  opening  more  ornamental 
by  adding  pointed  projections  called  cusps.  By  these  the 
shape  of  the  head  of  the  opening  was  turned  into  a  form 


Fig,  1"  — Two-light  Window.    (13th  Century.) 


resembling  a  trefoil  leaf.  Sometimes  two  cusps  were 
added  on  each  side.  The  head  is,  in  the  former  case,  said 
to  be  trefoiled — in  the  latter,  cinqfoiled. 

When  two  windows  were  placed  close  together  it  began 
to  be  customary  to  include  them  under  one  outer  arch,  and 
after  a  time  to  pierce  the  solid  head  between  them  with 
a  circle,  which  frequently  was  cusped,  forming  often  a 
quatrefoil    {Fig.    17).       This    completed    the    idea   of    a 


48 


GOTHIC    ARCniTECTUKE, 


group,  and  was  rapidly  followed  by  ornamental  treatment. 
Three,  four,  five,  or  more  windows  (which  in  such  a  position 
are  often  termed  lights)  were  often  placed  under  one 
arch,  the  head  of  which  was  filled  by  a  more  or  less  rich 
group  of  circles  ;  mouldings  were  added,  and  thiis  rose  the 
system  of  decoration  for  window-heads  known  as  tracery. 
So  long  as  the  tracery  preserves  the  simple  character  of 
piercings  through  a  flat  stone,  filling  the  space  between  the 


Fig.  is. — Geometrical  Tracery.     (14th  Centirv.) 

window  heads,  it  is  known  as  plate  ti'acery.  The  thin- 
ning down  of  the  blank  space  to  a  comparatively  narrow 
surface  went  on,  and  by  and  by  the  use  of  mouldings 
caused  that  plain  surface  to  resemble  bars  of  stone  bent 
into  a  circular  form :  this  was  called  bar  tracery,  and  it  is 
in  this  form  that  tracery  is  chiefly  employed  in  England 
(Fig.  18).  Westminster  Abbey  is  full  of  exquisite  ex- 
amples of  E.  E.  window-tracery  (temp.  Henry  III.)  ;  as, 
for  example,  in  the  windows  of  the  choir,  the  great 
circular  windows  (technically  termed  rose-windows)  at 
the  ends  of  the  transepts,  the  windows  of  the  chapter- 
house.    Last,  but   not   least,  the   splendid  arcade   which 


ANALYSIS  :    WINDOWS. 


49 


forms  the  trifoHum  is  filled  with  tracery  similar  in  every 

respect  to  the  best  window  tracery  of  the  period  (Fig.  19). 

In  the  decorated  style  of  the  fourteenth  century  tracery 

was  developed  till  it  reached  a  great  pitch  of  perfection 


Fig.  19.— The  Triforium  Arcade,  Westminster  Abbey.    (120S).) 


and  intricacy.  In  the  earlier  half  of  the  century  none 
save  regular  geometrical  forms,  made  up  of  circles  and  seg- 
ments of  circles,  occur  ;  in  other  words,  the  whole  design 
of  the  most  elaborate  wiijdow  could  be   drawn  with  the 

G  A  E 


50  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

compasses,  and  a  curve  of  contrary  flexure  rarely  occurred. 
In  the  latest  half  of  that  period  flowing  lines  are  intro- 
duced into  the  tracery,  and  very  much  alter  its  character 
(Fig.  20).  The  cusping  throughout  is  bolder  than  in  the 
E.  E.  period. 


,/ 


Fig.  20.— Rose  Window  from  the  Transept  of  Lincoln  Cathedral.  (1342—1347. 

In  perpendicular  windows  spaces  of  enormous  size 
are  occupied  by  the  mullions  and  tracery.  Horizontal 
bars,  called  transoms,  are  now  for  the  first  time  intro- 
duced, and  the  upright  bars  or  mullions  form  with  them 
a  kind  of  stone  grating ;  but  below  each  transom  a  series 
of  small  stone  arches  forms  heads  to  the  lights  below  that 
transom,  and  a  minor  mullion  often  springs  from  the  head 
of  each  of  these  arches,  so  that  as  the  window  increases  in 
height,  the  number  of  its  lights  increases.     The  character 


ANALYSIS  :  ROOFS  AND  VAULTS. 


51 


of  the  cusping  changed  again,  the  cusps  becoming  club- 
headed  in  their  form  (Fig.  21). 

Arches  in  the  great  arcades  of  churches,  or  in  the 
smaller  arcades  of  cloisters,  or  used  as  decorations  to  the 
surface  of  the  walls,  were  made  acute,  obtuse,  or  seg- 
mental, to  suit  the  duty  they  had  to  perform ;  but  when 
there  was  nothing  to  dictate  any  special  shape,  the  arch 
of  the  E.  E.  period  was  by  preference  acute  *  and  of  lofty 


Fif;.  21.— Peri-£kdicular  Window. 


pi'Oportions,  and  that  of  the  Dec.  less  lofty,  and  its  head 
equilateral  (i.e.  described  so  that  if  the  ends  of  the  base 
of  an  equilateral  triangle  touch  the  two  points  from  which 
it  springs,  the  apex  of  the  angle  shall  touch  the  point  of 
the  arch).  In  the  Perp.  pei'iod  the  four  centred  depressed 
arch,  sometimes  called  the  Tudor  arch,  was  introduced, 

*  For  illustrations  consult  the  Glossary  under  Arch. 

E    2 


52  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

and  though  it  did  not  entirely  supersede  the  equilateral 
ai'ch,  yet  its  employment  became  at  last  all  but  universal, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  especially  characteristic  features  of  the 
Tudor  period. 


Roofs  and  Vaults. 

The  external  and  the  internal  covering  of  a  building  are 
very  often  not  the  same ;  the  outer  covering  is  then  usually 
called  a  roof — the  other,  a  vault  or  ceiling.     In  not  a  few 
Gothic    buildings,   however,   they    were   the    same ;    such 
buiklings  had  what  are  known  as  open  roofs — i.e.  roofs  in 
which  the  whole  of  the  timber  framing  of  which  they  are 
constructed  is  open  to  view  from  the  interior  right  up  to 
the  tiles  or  lead.     Very  few  open  roofs  of  E.  E.  character 
are  now  remaining,  but  a  good  many  parish  churches  re- 
tain roofs  of  the  Dec,  and  more  of  the  Perp.  period.     The 
roof  of  Westminster  Hall  (Perp.,  erected  1397)  shows  how 
fine  an  architectural  object  such  a  roof  may  become.     The 
roof  of  the  hall  of  Eltham  Palace  (Fig.  22)  is  another  good 
example.    Wooden  ceilings,  often  very  rich,  are  not  uncom- 
mon, especially  in  the  churches  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  but 
greater  interest  attaches  to  the  stone  vaults  with  which 
the  majority  of   Gothic  buildings  were   erected,  than  to 
any   other   description    of    covering   to   the    interiors    of 
buildings. 

The  vault  was  a  feature  rarely  absent  from  important 
churches,  and  the  structural  requirements  of  the  Gothic 
vault  were  among  the  most  influential  of  the  elements 
which  determined  both  the  plan  and  the  section  of  a 
mediaeval  church.  There  was  a  regular  growth  in  Gothic 
vaults.  Those  of  the  thirteenth  century  are  compai-atively 
simple  ;  those  of  the  fourteenth  are  much  richer  and  more 


ANALYSIS  :    ROOFS   AND   VAULTS. 


53 


elaborate,  and  often  involve  very  great   structural   diffi- 
culties.    Those  of  the  fifteenth  are  more  systematic,  and 


Fig.  2-. — Roof  of  Hall  at  Eltham  Palaoe.    (15th  Century.) 


consequently  more  simple  in  principle  than  the  ones  which 
preceded  them,  but  are  such  marvels  of  workmanship,  and 
so  enriched  by  an  infinity  of   parts,  that  they  astonish 


54  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

the  beliolder,   and   it   appears,   till    the  secret  is  known, 
impossible  to  imagine  how  they  can  be  made  to  stand. 

It  has  been  held  by  some  very  good  authorities  that  the 
pointed  arch  was  first  introduced  into  Gothic  architecture 
to  solve  difficulties  which  presented  themselves  in  the 
vaulting.  In  all  probability  the  desire  to  give  to  every- 
thing, arches  included,  a  moie  lofty  appearance  and  more 
slender  proportions  may  have  had  as  much  to  do  with  the 
adoption  of  the  pointed  arch  as  any  structural  considera- 
tions, but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  used  for 
structural  arches  from  the  very  first,  even  when  window 
heads  and  wall  arcades  were  semi-circular,  and  that  the  intro- 
duction of  it  cleared  the  way  for  the  use  of  stone  vaults  of 
large  span  to  a  wonderful  extent.  It  is  not  easy  to  explain 
this  without  being  more  technical  than  is  perhaps  desirable 
in  the  present  volume,  but  the  subject  is  one  of  too  much 
importance  for  it  to  be  possible  to  avoid  making  the 
attempt. 

Churches,  it  will  be  recollected,  were  commonly  built 
with  a  wide  nave  and  narrower  aisles,  and  it  was  in  the 
Norman  period  customary  to  vault  the  aisles  and  cover  the 
nave  with  a  ceiling.  There  was  no  difficulty  in  so  spacing 
the  distances  apart  of  the  piers  of  the  main  arcade  that  the 
compartments  (usually  termed  bays)  of  the  aisle  should  be 
square  on  plan;  and  it  was  quite  possible,  without  doing  more 
than  the  Romans  had  done,  to  vault  each  bay  of  the  aisles 
with  a  semicircular  intersecting  vault  {i.e.  one  which  has  the 
appearance  of  a  semicircular  or  waggon-head,  vault,  inter- 
sected by  another  vault  of  the  same  outline  and  height).  This 
produced  a  simple  series  of  what  are  called  groined  or  cross 
vaults,  which  allowed  height  to  be  given  to  the  window 
heads  of  the  aisle  and  to  the  arcades  between  the  aisles 
and  nave. 


ANALYSIS  :    KOOFS    AND    VAULTS.  55 

After  a  time  it  was  desired  to  vault  the  nave  also,  and 
to  adopt  for  it  an  intersecting  vault,  so  that  the  heads  of 
the  windows  of  the  clerestory  might  be  raised  above  the 
springing  line  of  the  vault,  but  so  long  as  the  arches 
remained  semicircular,  this  was  very  difficult  to  accomplish. 

The  Romans  would  probably  have  contented  themselves 
with  employing  a  barrel  vault  and  piercing  it  to  the  extent 
required  by  short  lateral  vaults,  but  the  result  would  have 
been  an  irregular,  weak,  curved  line  at  each  intersection 
with  the  main  vault ;  and  the  aisle  vaults  having  made  the 
pleasing  effect  of  a  perfectly  regular  intersection  familiar, 
this  expedient  does  not  seem  to  have  found  favour,  at  any 
rate  in  England. 

Other  expedients  were  however  tried,  and  with  curious 
results.  It  was  for  example  attempted  to  vault  the  nave 
with  a  cross  vault,  embi"acing  two  bays  of  the  arcade  to 
one  of  the  vault,  but  the  wall  space  so  gained  was  particu- 
larly ill  suited  to  the  clerestory  windows,  as  may  be  seen 
by  examining  the  nave  of  St.  Stephen's  at  Caen.  In  short, 
if  the  vaulting  compartment  were  as  wide  as  the  nave  one 
way,  but  only  as  wide  as  the  aisle  the  other  way,  and  semi- 
circular arches  alone  were  employed,  a  satisfactory  result 
seemed  to  be  unattainable. 

In  the  search  for  some  means  of  so  vaulting  a  bay  of 
oblong  plan  that  the  arches  should  spring  all  at  one  level, 
and  the  groins  or  lines  of  intersection  should  cross  one 
another  in  the  centre  of  the  ceiling,  the  idea  either  arose 
or  was  suggested  that  the  curve  of  the  smaller  span  should 
be  a  pointed  instead  of  a  semicircular  arch. 

The  moment  this  was  tried  all  difficulty  vanished,  and 
groined  {i.e.  intersecting)  vaults,  covering  compartments  of 
any  proportions  became  easy  to  design  and  simple  to  con- 
struct, for  if  the  vault  which  spanned  the  narrow  way  of 


56  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE, 

the  compartment  were  acutely  pointed,  and  that  which 
spanned  it  the  wide  way  were  either  semicircular  or  flatly- 
pointed,  it  became  easy  to  arrange  that  the  startings  of 
both  vaults  should  be  at  the  same  level,  and  that  they 
should  rise  to  the  same  height,  which  is  the  condition 
essential  to  the  production  of  a  satisfactory  intersection, 

Scott  enumerates  not  fewer  than  fourteen  varieties  of 
mediaeval  vaults  *  and  points  out  that  specimens  of  thirteen 
are  to  be  found  at  Westminster.  Without  such  minute 
detail  we  may  f-elect  some  well-known  varieties: — (1) 
The  plain  waggon-head  vault,  as  at  the  Chapel  of  the 
Tower ;  (2)  in  advanced  Norman  works,  cross-vaults 
formed  by  two  intersecting  sem'circular  vaults,  the 
diagonal  line  being  called  a  groin,  (3)  The  earliest 
transitional  and  E.  E.  vaults,  pointed  and  with  transverse 
and  diagonal  ribs,  and  bosses  at  the  intersection  of  ribs, 
e.g.,  in  the  aisles  and  the  early  part  of  the  cloisters  at 
Westminster.  (4)  In  the  advanced  part  of  the  E.  E. 
pei'iod,  the  addition  of  a  rib  at  the  ridge,  as  seen  in  the 
presbytery  and  transepts  at  Westminster.  (5)  At  the 
time  of  the  transition  to  Dec.  {temp.  Ed.  1.)  additional 
ribs  began  to  be  introduced  between  the  diagonal  and  the 
transverse  ribs.  (6)  As  the  Dec.  period  advanced  other 
ribs,  called  Hemes,  were  introduced,  running  in  various 
directions  over  the  surface  of  the  vault,  making  star-like 
figures  on  the  vault.  (7)  The  vault  of  the  early  Perp., 
which  is  similar  to  the  last,  but  more  complicated  and 
approaching  No.  8,  e.g.,  Abbot  Islip's  chapel.  (8)  Lastly, 
the  distinctive  vault  of  the  advanced  or  Tudor  Perp.,  is 
the  fan-tracery  vault  of  which  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel  roof  is 

*  Address  to  the  Conference  of  Architects.  Reported  in  the  Builder 
of  24th  June,  1876.  Outlines  iUustrating  some  of  these  varieties  of 
vault  will  be  found  in  the  Glossary  under  Vault . 


Fig.  23.-He.nkt  YII.'s  Chapel.      (1503-1512.) 


58  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  climax.  The  vaulting  surfaces  in  these  are  portions 
of  hollow  conoidS;  and  are  covered  by  a  net-work  of  tine 
ribs,  connected  together  by  bands  of  cusping  (Fig.  23). 

In  Scott's  enumeration  the  vaults  of  octagons  and  irregu- 
lar compartments,  and  such  varieties  as  the  one  called 
sexpartite,  find  a  place ;  here  they  have  been  intentionally 
excluded.  Many  of  them  are  works  of  the  greatest  skill 
and  beauty,  especially  the  vaults  of  octagonal  chapter 
houses  springing  from  one  centre  pier  (e.g.,  Chapter  Houses 
at  Worcester,  Westminster,  Wells,  and  Salisbury). 

Externally,  the  roofs  of  buildings  became  very  steep  in 
the  thirteenth  century  ;  they  were  not  quite  so  steep  in  the 
fourteenth,  and  in  the  fifteenth  they  were  frequently 
almost  flat.  They  were  always  relied  upon  to  add  to  the 
effectiveness  of  a  building,  and  were  eni-iched  sometimes 
by  variegated  tiles  or  other  covering,  sometimes  by  the 
introduction  of  small  windows,  known  as  doi'mer  windows, 
each  with  its  own  gablet  and  its  little  roof,  and  some- 
times by  the  addition  of  a  steep  sided  roof  in  the  shape  of 
a  lantern  or  a  "  floche  "  on  the  ridge,  or  a  pyramidal  cover- 
ing to  some  projecting  octagon  or  turret. 

All  these  have  their  value  in  breaking  up  the  sky-line 
of  the  building,  and  adding  interest  and  beauty  to  it. 
Still  more  striking,  however,  in  its  effect  on  the  sky-line 
was  the  spire,  a  feature  to  which  great  attention  was  paid 
in  English  architecture. 

Spires. 

The  early  square  towers  of  Romanesque  churches  were 
sometimes  surmounted  by  pyramidal  roofs  of  low  pitch. 
We  have  probably  none  now  remaining,  but  we  have  some 
examples  of  large  pinnacles,  crowned  with  pyramids,  which 
show  what  the  shape  must  have  been.  They  were  squai-e 
in  plan  and  somewhat  steep  in  slope. 


ANALYSIS  :    VAULTS. 


59 


The  spire  was  deve- 
loped eaily  in  the  E.  E. 
period.  It  was  octa- 
gonal in  plan,  and  the 
four  sides  which  coin- 
cided with  the  faces 
of  the  tower  rose  direct 
from  the  walls  above 
a  slightly  masked 
eaves  course.  The 
four  oblique  sides  are 
connected  to  the  tower 
by  a  feature  called  a 
broach,  which  may  be 
described  as  part  of 
a  blunt  pyramid.  The 
broach-spire  (Fig.  24) 
is  to  be  met  with  in 
many  parts  of  Eng- 
land, but  especially 
in  Northamptonshire. 
The  chief  oinaments 
of  an  E.  E.  spire 
consist  in  small  win- 
dows (called  spire- 
lights  or  lucarnes) 
each  surmounted  by 
its  gablet. 

In  the  Dec.  period 
it  was  common  to 
finish  the  tower  by  a 
parapet,  and  to  stait 
the  spire  behind  the 
parapet, 


cr>mC.fimoa      FiG.  24.— EaRLY  ENGLISH  SPIRE.      CHI'RCH 

bumeumtjs         jj^^^^.  Magdalene.Wabbovs,  Lincoln^ 


OF  St. 

HIRE. 


60 


GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


-Decorated  Spire.     All  Saints'  Church. 
Oakham,  Rutlandshire. 


with  abroach,  often 
without.  Pinnacles 
were  frequently 
added  at  the  cor- 
ners of  the  tower, 
and  an  arch,  like 
that  of  a  flying 
buttress,  was 
sometimes  thrown 
across  from  the 
pinnacle  to  the 
spire.  Spire-lights 
occur  as  before, 
and  the  surface  of 
the  spire  is  often 
enriched  by  bands 
of  ornament  at 
intervals.  The 
general  proportions 
of  the  spire  were 
more  slender  than 
before,  and  the  rib, 
which  generally 
ran  up  each  angle, 
was  often  enriched 
by  crockets,  i.e. 
tufts  of  leaves  ar- 
ranged in  a  formal 
shape  (Fig.  25). 

Towers  were  fre- 
quently intended 
to  stand  without 
spires  in  the  Porp. 
period,     and     are 


ANALYSIS  :    MOULDINGS.  61 

often  finished  by  four  effectiA^e  angle-pinnacles  and  a 
cornice  with  battlements.  Where  spires  occur  in  this 
period  they  resemble  those  of  the  Dec.  pex'iod. 

Spires  end  usually  in  a  boss  or  finial,  surmounted  by  a 
weathercock.  Ordinary  roofs  were  usually  finished  by 
ornamental  cresting,  and  their  summits  were  marked  by 
finials,*  fi'equently  of  exquisite  workmanship. 

Ornaments. 

We  now  come  to  ornaments,  including  mouldings,  carv- 
ing, and  colour,  and  here  we  are  landed  upon  a  mass  of 
details  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  pursue  far.  Mould- 
ings play  a  prominent  part  in  Gothic  ai'chitecture,  and 
from  the  first  to  the  last  they  varied  so  constantly  that 
their  profiles  and  grouping  may  be  constantly  made  use  of 
as  a  kind  of  architectural  calendar,  to  point  out  the  time, 
to  within  a  few  yeai's,  when  the  building  in  which  they 
occur  was  erected. 

A  moulding  is  the  architect's  means  of  drawing  a  line 
on  his  building.  If  he  desires  to  mark  on  the  exterior  the 
position  of  an  internal  floor,  or  in  any  other  way  to  sug- 
gest a  division  into  storeys,  a  moulded  string-course  is 
introduced.  If  he  wishes  to  add  richness  and  play  of 
light  and  shade  to  the  sides  of  an  important  arch,  he 
introduces  a  series  of  mouldings,  the  profile  of  which 
has  been  designed  to  form  lights  and  shadows  such  as 
will  answer  his  purpose.  If  again  he  desires  to  throw 
out  a  projection  and  to  give  the  idea  of  its  being  properly 
supported,  he  places  under  his  projection  a  corbel  of 
mouldings  which  are  of  strong  as  well  as  pleasing  form, 
so  as  to  convey  to  the  eye  the  notion  of  support.  Mould, 
ings,  it  can  be  understood,  differ  in  both  size  and  profile, 
according  to  the  purpose  which  they  are  required  to  serve, 
*  See  Glossary. 


62  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

the  distance  from  the  spectator  at  which  they  are  fixed, 
and  the  material  out  of  which  they  are  formed.  In  the 
Gothic  periods  they  also  differed  according  to  the  date  at 
which  they  were  executed. 

The  first  step  towards  the  Gothic  system  of  mouldings 
was  taken  by  the  Romanesque  architects  when  the  idea 
of  building  arches  in  thick  walls,  not  only  one  within  the 
others,  but  also  in  planes  i-eceding  back  from  the  face  of 
the  wall  one  behind  as  well  as  within  another,  was  formed 


Fig.  20. — Early  Arch  in  Receding  Fig.  27. — Arch  in  Receding  Planes 

Planes.  Moulded. 

and  carried  out,  and  when  a  corresponding  recessed  arrange- 
ment of  the  jamb  of  the  arch  was  made  (Fig.  26).  The 
next  step  was  the  addition  of  some  simple  moulding  to  the 
advancing  angle  of  each  rim  of  such  a  series  of  arches 
either  forming  a  bead  (Fig.  27)  or  a  chamfer. 

In  the  transitional  part  of  the  twelfth  century  and  the 
E.  E.  period  this  process  went  on  till  at  last,  though 
the  separate  receding  arches  still  continued  to  exist,  the 
mouldings  *  into  which  they  were  cut  became  so  numerous 
and  elaborate  as  to  render  it  often  diiEcult  to  detect  the 
subordination  or  division  into  distinct  planes  which  really 
remained. 

*  For  iUustrations  consult  tlie  Glossary. 


ANALYSIS  :    ORNAMENTS. 


63 


This  passion  for  elaborate  mouldings,  often  extra- 
ordinarily undercut,  reached  its  climax  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  E.  E.  period.     In  the  Dec.  period,  while  almost 


Fig.  28. — Doorway,  Kino's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge.    (1£th  Century.) 

everything  else   became  more  elaborate,  mouldings  grew 
more   simple,   yet   hardly   less   beautiful.      In   the  Perp. 
period  they  were  not    only   further   simplified,    but  often 
impoverished,  being  usually  shallow,  formal,  and  stiff.  •' 
*  For  further  illustrations  see  the  Glossary. 


64  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE, 

Oi'naments  abounded,  and  included  not  only  enrich- 
ments in  the  shape  of  carved  foliage  and  t5gures,  statuary, 
mosaics,  and  so  forth,  but  ornamental  features,  such  as 
canopies,  pinnacles,  arcades,  and  recesses  (Fig.  28). 

In  each  period  these  are  distinct  in  design  from  all  that 
went  before  or  came  after,  and  thus  to  catch  the  spirit  of 
any  one  Gothic  period  aright,  it  is  not  enough  to  fix  the 
general  shapes  of  the  arches  and  proportions  of  the  piers 
but  every  featm-e,  every  moulding,  and  every  ornament 
must  be  wrought  in  the  true  spirit  of  the  work,  or  the 
result  will  be  marred. 

Stained  Glass. 

Ornamental  materials  and  every  sort  of  decorative  art, 
such  as  mosaic,  enamel,  metal  work  and  inlays,  were 
freely  employed  to  add  beauty  in  appropriate  positions ; 
but  there  was  one  ornament,  the  crowning  invention  of 
the  Gothic  artists,  which  largely  influenced  the  design  of 
the  finest  buildings,  and  which  reflected  a  glory  on  them 
such  as  nothing  else  can  approach  :  this  was  stained  glass. 

So  much  of  the  old  glass  has  perished,  and  so  little 
modern  glass  is  even  passable,  that  this  praise  may 
seem  overcharged  to  those  who  have  never  seen  any 
of  the  best  specimens  still  left.  We  have  in  the  choir  at 
Canterbury  a  remnant  of  the  finest  sort  of  glass  which 
England  possesses.  Some  good  fragments  remain  at  West- 
minster, though  not  very  many  ;  but  to  judge  of  the  effect 
of  glass  at  its  best,  the  student  should  visit  La  Sainte 
Chapelle  at  Paris,  or  the  Cathedrals  of  Chartres,  Le  Mans, 
Bourges,  or  Rheims,  and  he  will  find  in  these  buildings 
effects  in  colour  which  are  nothing  less  than  gorgeous  in 
their  brilliancy,  richness,  and  harmony. 


Fig.  29.— Stalked  Glass  Window  from  Chaktbes  Cathedeax. 
G  A  F 


66  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  stained  glass  as  compared  with 
every  other  sort  of  decoration,  is  that  it  is  luminous.  To 
some  extent  fresco-painting  may  claim  a  sort  of  bright- 
ness ;  mosaic  when  executed  in  polished  materials  possesses 
brilliancy ;  but  in  stained  glass  the  light  which  comes 
streaming  in  through  the  window  itself  gives  radiance, 
while  the  quality  of  the  glass  determines  the  colour,  and 
thus  we  obtain  a  glowing,  lustre  of  colour  which  can  only 
be  compared  to  the  beauty  of  gems.  In  order  properly  to 
fill  their  place  as  decorations,  stained-glass  windows  must  be 
something  quite  different  from  transparent  pictures,  and 
the  scenes  they  repi'esent  must  not  detach  themselves  too 
violently  from  the  general  ground.  The  most  perfect  effect 
is  produced  by  such  windows  as  those  at  Canterbury  or 
Chartres  (Fig.  29),  which  recall  a  cluster  of  jewels  rather 
than  a  picture. 

Coloured  Decoration. 

Colour  was  also  freely  introduced  by  the  lavish  employ- 
ment of  coloured  materials  where  they  were  to  be  had, 
and  by  painting  the  interiors  with  bright  pigments.  We 
meet  with  traces  of  rich  colour  on  many  parts  of  ancient 
buildings,  where  we  should  hardly  dare  to  put  it  now,  and 
we  cannot  doubt  that  painted  decoration  was  constantly 
made  use  of  with  the  happiest  effect. 

Sculpture. 

The  last,  perhaps  the  noblest  ornament,  is  sculpture.  The 
Gothic  architects  were  alive  to  its  value,  and  in  all  their 
best  works  statues  abounded  ;  often  conventional  to  the  last 
degree  ;  sometimes  to  our  eyes  uncouth,  but  always  the 
best  which  those  who  cax'ved  them  could  do  at  the  time ; 
always  sure  to  contribute  to  architectural  effect;   never 


Fig.  30.— Sculptube  from  the  E>-TnANCE  to  the  Chapter  Hovse, 
"Westminster  Abbey.    (1250.) 

F    2 


68 


GOTIITC    ARCniTECTURE. 


without  a  picturesque  power,  sometimes  rising  to  grace 
and  even  grandeur,  and  sometimes  sinking  to  grotesque 
ugliness.  Whatever  the  quality  of  the  sculpture  was, 
it  was  always  there,  and  added  life  to  the  whole. 
Monsters  gaped  and  grinned  from  the  water-spouts,  little 
figures  or  strange  animals  twisted  in  and  out  of  the  foliage 
at  angles  and  bosses  and  corbels.  Stately  effigies  occupied 
dignified  niches,  in  places  of  honour  •  and  in  the  mould- 
ings and  tympanum  of  the  head  of  a  doorway  there  was 
often  carved  a  whole  host  of  figures  representing  heaven, 
earth,  and  hell,  with  a  rude  force  and  a  native  eloquence 
that  have  not  lost  their  power  to  the  present  day. 

In  the  positions  where  modest  ornamentation  was  re- 
quired, as  for  example  the  capitals  of  shafts,  the  hollows 
of  groups  of  mouldings,  and  the  bosses  of  vaulting,  carv- 
ing of  the  most  finished  execution  and  masterly  design 
constantly  occurs.  Speaking  roughly,  this  was  chiefly 
conventional  in  the  E.  E.  period,  chiefly  natural  in  the 
Dec.  and  mixed,  but  with  perhaps  a  preference  for  the 
conventional  in  the  Perp.  Examples  abound,  but  both 
for  beauty  and  accessibility  we  can  refer  to  no  better 
example  than  the  carving  which  enriches  the  entrance 
to  the  Chapter  House  of  Westminster  Abbey  (Fig.  30). 


Miserere  Scat  . 


Wells  Cathedral. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GOTHIC     ARCHITECTURE     IN     WESTERN    EUROPE. 
FRANCE. — CHRONOLOGICAL    SKETCH. 

THE  architecture  of  France  during  the  Middle  Ages 
throws  much  light  upon  the  history  of  the 
country.  The  features  in  which  it  differs  from  the  work 
done  in  England  at  the  same  period  can,  many  of  them, 
be  directly  traced  to  differences  in  the  social,  political,  or 
religious  situation  of  the  two  nations  at  the  time.  For 
example,  we  find  England  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  in  the  hands  of  the  Normans,  a  newly-conquered 
country  under  uniform  administration ;  and  accordingly 
few  local  variations  occur  in  the  architecture  of  our 
Norman  period.  The  twelfth-century  woi-k,  at  Durham  or 
Peterborough  for  instance,  differs  but  little  from  that  at 
Gloucester  or  Winchester.  In  France  the  case  is  different. 
That  country  was  divided  into  a  series  of  semi-independent 
provinces,  whose  inhabitants  differed,  not  only  in  the 
leaders  whom  they  followed,  but  in  speech,  race,  and 
customs.  As  might  be  expected,  the  buildings  of  each 
province  presented  an  aspect  different  in  many  respects 
from  those  of  every  other ;  and  we  may  as  well  add  that 
these  peculiarities  did  not  die  out  with  the  end  of  the 
round-arched  period  of  architecture,  but  lingered  far  into 
the  pointed  period. 


70 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


The  south  of  France  was  occupied  by  people  speaking 
what  are  now  known  as  the  Romance  dialects,  and  some 


Fig.  31. — Church  at  Funtevrault.    (Begun  1125  ) 

writers  have  adopted  the  name  as  descriptive  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  architecture  of  these  districts.  The 
Romance  provinces  clung  tenaciously  to  their  early  forms 


FRANCE. — CHRONOLOGICAL  SKETCH. 


71 


of  art,  so  that  pointed  architecture  was  not  established  in 
the  south  of  France  till  half  a  century,  and  in  some  places 
nearly  a  whole  century,  later  than  in  the  north. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Frankish  part  of  the  country 
was  the  cradle  of  Gothic.  The  transition  from 
round  to  pointed  architecture  first  took  place  in  the  royal 
domain,  of  which  Paris  was  the  centre,  and  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  new  style  was  already  existing  when  in 
1140  Abbot  Suger  laid  the  foundations  of  the  choir  of 
the  church  of  St.  Denis,  about  forty  years  before  the 
commencement  of  the  eastern  arm  of  our  own  Canterbury. 

De  Canmont,  who  in  his  "  Abecedaire "  did  for  French 
architecture  somewhat  the  same  woik  of  analysis  and 
scientific  arrangement  which  Rickman  performed  for 
English,  has  adopted  the  following  classification  : — 


Romanesque  Architecture. 
Architectiire  Eomane. 


I  Primitive. 
Primordiale. 

Second. 
Secondaire. 

Third    or   Transi 

tion. 
Tertiaire     ou 

Transition. 


5th  to  10th  centurj'. 

End  of  10th  to  com- 
menceijieut  of  12th 
\      centui-y. 


de 


Pointed  Architecture. 
Architecture  ogivale. 


First. 
Primitive. 

Second. 
Secondaire. 

Third. 

Tertiairr, 


12  th  century. 

13th  century. 
14th  century. 
15th  centurv. 


The  transitional  architecture  of  France  is  no  exception  to 
the  rule  that  the  art  of  a  period  of  change  is  full  of  interest. 
Much  of  it  has  disappeared,  but  examples  remain  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Denis  ah'eady  referred 
to,  in  jiortions  of  the   cathedrals  of  Noyon  and  Sens,  the 


YUi.   H2.— D.IORWAY   AT   LOCHES,   FRANCE.        (1180.) 


FRANCE. — CHRONOLOCilCAL    SKETCH,  73 

west  front  of  Chartres,  the  church  of  St.  Germain  des  Prc-s 
at  Paris,  and  elsewhere.  We  here  often  find  the  pointed 
arch  employed  for  the  most  important  parts  of  the 
structure,  while  the  round  arch  is  still  retained  in  the 
window  and  door-heads,  and  in  decorative  arcades,  as 
shown  in  our  illustrations  of  a  section  of  the  church 
at  Fontevrault  (Fig.  31),  and  of  a  doorway  at  Loches 
(Fig.  32). 

The  first  pointed  architecture  of  the  thirteenth  century 
in  France  differs  considerably  from  the  early  English  of 
this  country.  The  arches  ai-e  usually  less  acute,  and  the 
windows  not  so  tall  in  proportion  to  their  width.  The 
mouldings  employed  are  few  and  simple  compared  with  the 
many  and  intricate  English  ones.  Large  round  columns 
are  much  used  in  place  of  our  complicated  groups  of  small 
shafts  for  the  piers  of  the  nave  ;  and  the  abacus  of  the 
capital  remains  square.  An  air  of  breadth  and  dignity 
prevails  in  the  buildings  of  this  date  to  which  the  simple 
details,  noble  proportions,  and  great  size  largely  con- 
tribute. The  western  front  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris  (Fig. 
33),  dates  from  the  early  years  of  this  century,  the  in- 
terior being  much  of  it  a  little  earlier.  The  well-known 
cathedrals  of  Chartres,  E-heims,  Laon,  and  later  in  the 
style,  Amiens,  and  Beauvais,  may  be  taken  as  grand 
examples  of  French  fix'st  pointed.  To  these  may  be  added 
the  very  graceful  Sainte  Chapelle  of  Paris,  the  choir  and 
part  of  the  nave  of  the  cathedral  at  Eouen,  the  church 
of  St.  Etienne  at  Caen,  and  the  cathedrals  of  Coutances, 
Lisieux,  Le  Mans,  and  Bourges.  This  list  of  churches 
could  be  almost  indefinitely  extended,  and  many  monastic 
buildings,  and  not  a  few  domestic  and  military  ones,  might 
be  added.  Among  the  most  conspicuous  of  these  may  be 
named  the  monastic  fortress  at  Mont  St.  Michel,  probably 


Fig  33.— Xotre  Dajie,  Paris,  West  Froxt.     (1214.) 


FBANCE. — CHRONOLOGICAL  SKETCH.  75 

the  most  picturesque  structure  in  France,  the  remarkable 
fortifications  of  Carcassonne,  and  the  lordly  castle  of  Coucy. 

The  second  pointed,  or  fourteenth  century  Gothic  of 
France,  bears  more  resemblance  to  contemporary  English 
Gothic  than  the  work  of  the  centuries  preceding  or 
following.  Large  windows  for  stained  glass,  with  rich 
geometrical  tracery  prevailed,  and  much  the  same  sort  of 
ornamental  treatment  as  in  England  was  adopted  in  richly 
decorated  buildings.  Specimens  of  the  work  of  this  century 
occur  everywhere  in  the  shape  of  additions  to  the  great 
churches  and  cathedrals  which  had  been  left  unfinished 
from  the  previous  century,  and  also  of  side  chapels  which 
it  became  customary  to  add  to  the  aisles  of  churches.  The 
great  and  well-known  abbey  of  St.  Ouen  at  Rouen  is  one  of 
the  few  first-class  churches  which  can  be  named  as  begun 
and  almost  entirely  completed  in  this  century.  The  tower 
and  spire  of  the  church  of  St.  Pierre  at  Caen  (Fig.  13)  are 
very  well-known  and  beautiful  specimens  of  this  period. 

French  fifteenth  century  architecture,  or  third  pointed, 
is  far  from  being  so  dignified  or  so  scientific  as  English 
perpendiculai-,  and  dift'ers  from  it  considerably.  Exuberant 
richness  in  decoration  was  the  rage,  and  shows  itself  both 
in  sculpture,  tracery,  and  general  design.  Much  of  the  later 
work  of  this  period  has  received  the  name  of  flamboyant, 
because  of  the  flame-like  shapes  into  which  the  tracery  of 
the  heads  of  windows  was  thrown.  In  flamboyant  build- 
ings we  often  meet  with  art  which,  though  certainly  over- 
florid,  is  brilliant,  rich,  and  full  of  true  feeling  for  decoi'ation. 

In  this  century,  secular  and  domestic  buildings  attained 
more  prominence  than  at  any  previous  periods.  Some  of 
them  are  among  the  best  works  which  this  period  pro- 
duced. Familiar  examples  will  be  found  in  the  noble 
Palais  de  Justice  at  Eouen,  and  the  Hotel  de  Bourgtherould 


76 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


in  the  same  city ;  in  parts  of  the  great  chateau  at  Blois, 
the  splendid  chateau  of  Pierrefonds,  and  the  Hotels  de 
Ville  of  Oudenarde  and  Caen. 


FRANCE. ANALYSIS  OF  BUILDINGS. 

rian. 
The   plans    of   French    cathedrals    and    other  buildings 
conform   in    general  to    the    description    of    Gothic    plans 


p<ixi><i><M, 


44XiXi><i><;/<^ 


Fig.  34. — Plan  of  Ajiiens  Cathedral.     (12;0-1272.) 

given  in  Chapter  II.,   but    tbey   have    of    course    certain 
distinctive    peculiarities    (Fig.   34).      The    cathedrals  aie 


^EA^X•E ANALYSIS  :    PLANS.  77 

as  a  rule  much  broader  in  proportion  to  their  length 
than  English  ones.  Double  aisles  frequently  occur,  and 
not  infrequently  an  added  range  of  side  chapels  fringes 
each  of  the  main  side  walls,  so  that  the  interior  of 
one  of  these  vast  buildings  presents,  in  addition  to  the 
main  vista  along  the  nave,  many  delightful  cross  views  of 
great  extent.  The  transepts  are  also  much  less  strongly 
marked  than  our  English  examples.  There  are  even  some 
great  cathedrals  {e.g.,  Bourges)  without  transepts ;  and 
whei'e  they  exist  it  is  common  to  find  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  they  do  not  project  beyond  the  line 
of  the  side  Avails,  so  that,  although  fairly  well-marked  in 
the  exterior  and  interior  of  the  building,  they  add  nothing 
to  its  floor-space.  The  eastern  end  of  a  French  cathedral 
(and  indeed  of  French  chiu'ches  generally,  with  very  few 
exceptions)  is  terminated  in  an  apse.  When,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case,  this  apse  is  encircled  by  a  ring  of  chapels, 
with  flying  buttresses  on  several  stages  rising  from  among 
them,  the  whole  arrangement  is  called  a  chevet,  and  very 
striking  and  busy  is  the  appearance  which  it  presents. 

Walls,  Toicers,  and  Gables. 

The  walls  are  rarely  built  of  any  other  material  than 
stone,  and  much  splendid  masonry  is  to  be  formd  in  France. 
Low  towers  are  often  to  be  met  with,  and  so  are  project- 
ing staircase  turrets  of  polygonal  or  circular  forms.  The 
facades  of  cathedrals,  including  ends  of  transepts  as 
well  as  west  fronts,  are  most  striking,  and  often  mag- 
nificently enriched.  It  is  an  interesting  study  to  examine 
a  series  of  these  fronts,  each  a  little  more  advanced 
than  the  last,  as  for  example  Notre  Dame  (Fig.  33),  the 
transept  at  Eouen,  Amiens  (Fig.  35),  and  Eheims,  and  to 


Fig.  35.— Amiens  Cathedral,  West  Fhont.    (1220 — 1272.) 


FBANCE.  —  ANALYSIS  :    COLUMNS.  79 

note  how  the  horizontal  bands  and  other  level  features 
gi'ow  less  and  less  conspicuous,  while  the  vertical  ones 
are  more  and  more  strongly  marked  ;  showing  an  increas- 
ing desire,  not  only  to  make  the  buildings  lofty,  but  to 
suppress  everything  which  might  interfere  with  their 
looking  as  high  as  possible. 

Columns  and  Piers. 

The  column  is  a  greater  favourite  than  the  pier  in 
France,  as  has  already  been  said.  Sometimes,  where 
the  supports  of  the  main  arcade  are  really  piers,  they  are 
built  like  circular  shafts  of  large  size ;  and  even  when  they 
have  no  capital  (as  was  the  case  in  third-pointed  examples), 
these  piers  still  retain  much  of  the  air  of  solid  strength 
which  belongs  to  the  column,  and  which  the  French  archi- 
tects appear  to  have  valued  highly.  In  cases  where  a 
series  of  mouldings  has  to  be  carried — as  for  example 
when  the  main  arcade  of  a  building  is  richly  moulded — 
English  architects  would  usually  have  provided  a  distinct 
shaft  for  each  little  group  (or  as  Willis  named  them  order), 
into  which  the  whole  can  be  subdivided.  In  France,  at 
any  rate  during  the  earlier  periods,  the  whole  series  of 
mouldings  would  spring  from  the  square  unbroken  abacus 
of  a  single  large  column,  to  which  perhaps  one  shaft,  or  as 
in  our  illustration  (Fig.  36)  four  shafts,  would  be  attached 
which  would  be  carried  up  to  the  springing  of  the  nave 
vault,  at  which  point  the  same  treatment  would  be  re- 
peated, though  on  a  smaller  scale,  with  the  moulded  ribs 
of  that  vault. 

A  peculiarity  of  some  districts  of  southern  France  is 
the  suppression  of  the  external  buttress ;  the  buttresses 
are  in  fact  built  within  the  church  walls  instead  of  out- 
side, and  masonry  enough   is  added  to  make  each  into  a 


i.  Springinr;  of  inain  ribs  of  the  vault. 


h.  String-course     below    the    clere- 
storey. 


'— ''     a  b.  Triforium  arcade. 

(/.   Stringcourse  below  the  triform. 


B.  Main  arcade  .separating  the  nave 
from  the  aisles. 

A  and  N.  Shafts  attached  to  pier 
and  supporting  portions  of  the 
superstructure. 


Fig.  36. — Piers  and  Superstructure,  Rheims  Cathedeal.    (1211-1240.) 


FEAN'CE.  —  ANALYSIS  :    ROOFS.  81 

separating  wall  which  divides  side  chapels.  Some  large 
churches,  e.g.,  the  cathedral  at  Alby,  in  Southern  France, 
consist  of  a  wide  nave  buttressed  in  this  way,  and  having 
side  chapels  between  the  buttresses,  but  without  side  aisles. 
The  plans  of  the  secular,  military,  and  domestic  build- 
ings of  France  also  present  many  interesting  peculiarities, 
but  not  such  as  it  is  possible  to  review  within  the  narrow 
limits  of  this  chapter. 

Roofs  and  Vaults. 

The  peculiarly  English  feature  of  an  open  roof  is  hardly 
ever  met  with  in  any  shape  :  yet  though  stone  vaults  are 
almost  universal,  they  are  rarely  equal  in  scientific  skill 
to  the  best  of  those  in  our  own  country.  In  transitional 
examples,  many  very .  singular  instances  of  the  expedients 
employed  before  the  pointed  vault  was  fully  developed 
can  be  found.  In  some  of  the  central  and  southern  dis- 
tricts, domes,  or  at  least  domical  vau.lts,  were  employed. 
(See  the  section  of  Fontevrault,  Fig.  31).  The  dome  came 
in  from  Byzantium.  It  was  introduced  in  Perigord,  where 
the  very  curious  and  remarkable  church  of  St.  Front 
(begun  early  in  the  eleventh  century)  was  built.  This  is 
to  all  intents  a  Byzantine  church.  It  is  an  almost  exact 
copy  in  plan  and  construction  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  a 
church  designed  and  built  by  Eastern  architects,  and  it  is 
roofed  by  a  series  of  domes,  a  peculiarity  which  is  as  dis- 
tinctive of  Byzantine  {i.e.,  Eastern  early  Christian),  as  the 
vaulted  roof  is  of  Romanesque  (or  Western  early  Christian) 
architecture.  Artists  from  Constantinople  itself  probably 
visited  France,  and  from  this  centre  a  not  inconsiderable 
influence  extended  itself  in  various  directions,  and  led  to 
the  use  of  many  Byzantine  features  both  of  design  and 
ornament. 

G  A  G 


S2  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

As  features  in  the  exterior  of  their  buildings,  the  roofs 
have  been  in  every  period  valued  by  the  Fiench  architects  ; 
they  are  almost  always  steep,  striking,  and  ornamented. 
All  appropi'iate  modes  of  giving  prominence  and  adding 
ornament  to  a  roof  have  been  very  fully  developed  in 
French  Gothic  architecture,  and  the  roofs  of  semi-circula 
and  circular  apses,  staircase -towers,  &c.,  may  be  almost 
looked  upon  as  typical.* 

Openings. 

The  treatment  of  openings  gives  occasion  for  one  of  the 
most  strongly  marked  points  of  contrast  between  French 
and  English  Gothic  architecture.  With  us  the  great 
windows  are  unquestionably  the  prominent  features,  but 
with  the  French  the  doors  are  most  elaborated.  This  re- 
sult is  reached  not  so  much  by  any  lowering  of  the  quality 
of  the  treatment  bestowed  upon  the  windows,  but  by  the 
greatly  increased  importance  given  to  doorways. 

The  great  portals  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris  (Fig.  33), 
Piheims,  or  Amiens  (Fig.  35),  and  the  grand  porches  of 
Ohartres  may  be  named  as  the  finest  examples,  and 
are  probably  the  most  magnificent  single  features  which 
Gothic  Art  produced  in  any  age  or  any  country ; 
but  in  its  degree  the  western  portal  of  every  great 
church  is  usually  an  object  upon  which  the  best  resources 
of  the  architect  have  been  freely  lavished.  The  wall  is 
built  very  thick  so  that  enormous  jambs,  carrying  a  vast 
moulded  arch,  can  be  employed.  The  head  of  the  door  is 
filled  with  sculpture,  which  is  also  lavishly  used  in  the 
sides  and  arch,  and  over  the  whole  rises  an  ornamental 
gable,    frequently    profusely    adorned    with    tracery   and 

*  For  an  example  of  these  see  the  house  of  Jarjiies  Cccur  (Fig.  7). 


FRANCE. — ANALYSIS  :  MOULDINGS.  83 

sculpture,  its  sides  being  richly  decorated  by  crockets  or 
similar  ornaments,  and  crowned  by  a  sculptured  terminal 
or  finial. 

The  windows  in  the  earliest  periods  are  simpler  than 
in  our  E.  E.,  as  well  as  of  less  slender  proportions.  In 
the  second  and  third  periods  they  are  full  of  rich  tracery, 
and  are  made  lofty  and  wide  to  receive  the  magnificent 
stained  glass  with  which  it  was  intended  to  fill  them,  and 
which  many  churches  retain.  Circular  windows,  sometimes 
called  wheel-windows,  often  occupy  the  gables,  and  are 
many  of  them  very  fine  compositions. 

Mouldings  and  Ornaments. 

The  mouldings  of  the  French  first  pointed  are  usually 
lai'ger  than  our  own.  Compared  with  ours  they  are  also 
fewer,  simpler,  and  designed  to  produce  more  breadth  of 
effect.  This  may  partly  result  from  their  originating  in  a 
sunshiny  country  where  effects  of  shade  are  easily  obtained. 
In  the  second  and  third  periods  they  more  nearly  resemble 
those  in  use  in  England  at  the  corresponding  times. 

The  carving  is  very  characteristic  and  very  beautiful. 
In  the  transition  and  first  pointed  a  cluster  of  stalks,  ending 
in  a  tuft  of  foliage  or  flowers,  is  constantly  employed, 
especially  in  capitals.  The  use  of  this  in  England  is  rare  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  foliage  like  E,  E.  conventional 
foliage  is  rare  in  France.  In  the  second  pointed,  natural 
foliage  is  admirably  rendered  (Fig.  37).  In  the  third  a 
somewhat  conventional  kind  of  foliage,  very  luxuriant  in 
its  apparent  growth,  is  constantly  met  with. 

This  carving  is  at  every  stage  accompanied  by  figure - 
sculpture  of  the  finest  character.  Heads  of  animals,  statues, 
groups  of  figures,  and  bas-reliefs  are  freely  employed,  but 

a  2 


84 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


always  with  the  greatest  judgment,  so  that  their  introduc- 
tion adds  richness  to  the  very  point  in  the  whole  com- 
position where  it  is  most  needed.  In  every  part  of  France, 
and  in  every  period  of  Gothic  architecture,  good  specimens 
of  sculpture  abound.     Easily  accessible  illustrations  will 


Fig.  37. — Capital  from  St.  Nicholas,  Blois,  Frasce. 
(13th  Centcry.) 

be  found  in  the  west  entrance  and  south  transept  front  of 
Rouen  Cathedral,  the  porches  and  portals  at  Chartres,  the 
choir  inclo.sure  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris,  and  the  richly 
sculptured  inclosure  of  the  choir  of  Amiens  Cathedral. 

Stained  glass  has  been  more  than  once  referred  to.  It  is 
to  be  found  in  its  greatest  perfection  in  France,  as  for 
example  in  La  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris^  and  the  cathedrals 


FRANCE. ANALYSIS  OF  BUILDINGS.  85 

of  Le  Mans,  Boui-ges,  Chartres,  and  Rheims.  All  that  has 
been  said  in  the  introductory  chapter  on  this,  the  crowning 
ornament  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  on  its  influence  upon 
window  design,  and  through  that,  upon  the  whole  structure 
of  the  best  churches,  is  to  the  full  as  applicable  to  French 
examples.  Coloured  decoration  was  also  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  interior  of  churches  and  other  buildings,  and 
is  constantly  to  be  met  with  in  French  buildings,  both 
secular  and  religious.  In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  less 
easy  to  appreciate  this  than  the  stained  glass,  for,  as  it  is 
now  to  be  seen,  the  colours  are  either  faded  and  darkened 
by  time  and  smoke,  or  else  restored,  not  always  with  the 
exactness  that  could  be  desired. 


Construction  and  Design. 

The  construction  of  the  great  buildings  of  the  middle 
ages  in  France  is  an  interesting  subject  of  study,  but 
necessarily  a  thoroughly  technical  one.  Great  sagacity 
in  designing  the  masonry,  carpentry,  joinery,  and  metal- 
work;  and  trained  skill  in  the  carrying  out  the  designs, 
have  left  their  traces  everywhere ;  and  while  the  con- 
struction of  the  earlier  castles  and  of  the  simple  churches 
shows  a  solidity  but  little  inferior  to  that  of  the  Komans 
themselves,  the  most  elaborate  works,  such  for  example 
as  the  choir  at  Beauvais  (Fig.  38),  can  hardly  be  surpassed 
as  specimens  of  skill  and  daring,  careful  forethought,  and 
bold  execution. 

Design,  in  France,  pursued  the  general  principles  of  Gothic 
architecture  to  their  logical  conclusions  with  the  most 
uncompromising  consistency.  Perhaps  the  most  distinctive 
peculiarity  in  French  cathedrals  is  a  love  of  abstract  beauty, 
and  a  strong  preference  for  breadth,  regularity,   dignity, 


86 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


and  symmetry  wherever  they  come  into  competition  with 
picturesqueness  and  irregular  grouping.      There  is,  it   is 


Fig.  3?. — BEArvAis  CATHErRAL,  Inthriok.    (1225—1537.) 


true,  plenty  of  the  picturesque  element  in  French  mediseval 
art ;    but  if    we  take  the  finest  buildings,  and  those  in 


BELGIUM    AXD    THE    NETHERLANDS.  "  87 

which  the  greatest  effort  would  be  made  to  secure  the  quali- 
ties which  were  considered  the  greatest  and  most  desirable, 
we  shall  find  very  strong  evidences  of  a  conviction  that 
beauty  was  to  be  attained  by  regularity  and  order,  rather 
than  by  unsymmetrical  and  irregular  treatment. 

BELGIUM    AXD    THE    NETHERLANDS. 

Belgium  is  a  country  rich  in  remains  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. Its  art  Avas  influenced  so  largely  by  its  neighbour- 
hood to  France,  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  attempt 
anything  like  a  chronological  arrangement  of  its  buildings. 
Fine  churches  exist  in  its  principal  cities,  but  they  cannot 
be  said  to  form  a  series  differing  widely  from  the  churches 
of  France,  with  which  they  were  contemporary,  and  where 
they  differ  the  advantage  is  generally  on  the  side  of  the 
French  originals. 

The  principal  cathedral  of  the  Low  Countries,  that  at 
Antwerp,  is  a  building  remarkable  for  its  gi-eat  width 
(having  seven  aisles),  and  for  the  wonderful  picturesque- 
ness  of  its  interior.  The  exterior,  which  is  unfinished, 
is  also  very  effective,  with  its  one  lofty  spire.  The  other 
cathedrals  of  note  include  those  of  Tournay,  Brussels, 
Mechlin,  Louvain,  Liege,  and  Ghent.  Belgium  also  pos- 
sesses a  great  number  of  large  parochial  churches. 

When  we  turn  to  secular  buildings  we  find  the  Belgian 
architecture  of  the  middle  ages  taking  a  leading  position. 
The  free  cities  of  Belgium  acquired  municipal  privileges 
at  an  early  date,  and  accumulated  great  wealth.  Accord- 
ingly we  find  town  halls,  trade  halls,  belfries,  warehouses, 
and  excellent  private  dwelling  houses  in  abundance.  The 
cloth  hall  at  Ypres  has  been  repeatedly  illustrated  and 
referred  to  as  an  example  of  a  grand  and  effective  building 


88  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

for  trade  purposes  ;  it  is  of  thirteenth  century  architecture 
and  of  great  size,  its  centre  marked  by  a  massive  lofty 
tower,  and  its  angles  carrying  slight  turrets  ;  but  in  other 
respects  it  depends  for  its  eifectiveness  solely  on  its  repe- 
tition of  similar  features.  Examples  of  the  same  kind 
of  architecture  exist  at  Louvain  and  Ghent. 

The  Town  Halls  of  Brussels,  Louvain,  Bruges,  Mechlin, 
Ghent,  Oudenarde,  and  Ypres,  are  all  buildings  claiming 
attention.  They  were  most  of  them  in  progress  during  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  are  fine,  but  florid  examples  of  late 
Gothic.  Some  one  or  two  at  least  of  the  town  halls  were 
begun  and  partly  carried  out  in  the  fourteenth  century  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Oudenarde,  was 
began  as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth ;  so 
were  the  Exchange  at  Antwerp  (destroyed  by  fire  and 
rebuilt  not  long  since)  and  some  other  well-known 
structures  :  their  achitecture,  though  certainly  Gothic,  is 
debased  in  style. 

The  general  aspect  of  these  famous  buildings  was  noble 
and  bold  in  mass,  and  rich  in  ornament.  Our  illustration 
(Fig.  39)  shows  the  Town  Hall  of  Middleburgh  in  Holland  ; 
one  which  is  less  famous  and  of  smaller  dimensions  than 
those  enumerated  above,  but  equally  charactei-istic. 

The  main  building  usually  consisted  of  a  long  unbroken 
lilock  surmounted  by  a  high-pitched  roof,  and  usually  oc- 
cupied one  side  of  a  public  place.  The  side  of  the  building 
presents  several  storeys,  filled  by  rows  of  fine  windows, 
though  in  some  cases  the  lowest  storey  is  occupied  by  an 
open  arcade.  The  steep  roof,  usually  crowded  with  dormer 
windows,  carries  up  the  eye  to  a  lofty  ridge,  and  from  the 
centre  of  it  rises  the  lofty  tower  which  forms  so  conspicuous 
a  feature  in  most  of  these  buildings.  In  the  Town  Htill 
at  Bruges  the   tower  is  comparatively  simple,  though  of  a 


Fig.  39.— The  Towx  Hall  of  Middlebuegh.    (1518.) 


90  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

mass  and  height  that  are  truly  imposing ;  but  in  Brussels, 


Fig.  -40.  — Tower  at  Ghent.    (Begun  11&3.) 

Ypres,  and  other  examples,  it  is  a  richly  ornamented  cam- 
position  on  which  every  resource  of  the  mason  and  the 
carver  has  been  lavished.  Our  illustration  (Fig.  40) 
shows  the  well-known  tower  at  Ghent. 


SCOTLAND    AND    IRELAND.  91 

The  gable  ends  of  the  great  roof  are  often  adorned  by- 
pinnacles  and  other  ornaments ;  but  they  rarely  come 
prominently  into  view,  as  it  is  invariably  the  long  side  of 
the  building  which  is  considered  to  be  the  principal  front. 


SCOTLAND,    WALES,    AND    IRELAND. 

In  Scotland  good  but  simple  examples  of  early  work 
(transition  from  Romanesque  to  E.  E.)  occur,  as  for 
example,  at  Jedburgh  and  Kelso,  Dryburgh  and  Leuchars 
abbey  churches.  A  very  interesting  and  in  many  respects 
unique  cathedral  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Avith  later 
additions,  exists  at  Glasgow.  It  is  a  building  of  much 
beauty,  with  good  tracery,  and  the  crypt  offers  a  perfect 
study  of  various  and  often  graceful  modes  of  forming 
groined  vaults.  The  Cathedral  of  Elgin  (thirteenth  cen- 
tui-y),  an  admirable  Edwardian  building,  now  in  ruins,  and 
the  Abbey  at  Melrose,  also  ruined,  of  fourteenth- century 
architecture  (begun  1322),  aie  both  excellent  specimens  of 
the  art  of  the  periods  to  which  they  belong,  and  bear  a 
close  resemblance  to  what  was  being  done  in  England  at 
the  same  time.  The  famous  tower  of  St.  Giles's  Cathedral, 
Edinburgh,  and  the  Chapel  at  Roslyn,  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  thoroughly  un-English 
character,  resembling  in  this  respect  much  of  the  Scotch 
ai'chitectvire  of  the  succeeding  centuries  ;  Eoslyn  is  ascribed 
by  Mr.  Fergusson  to  a  Spanish  or  Portuguese  architect, 
with  great  probability. 

Other  abbey  churches  and  remains  of  architectui-al  work 
exist  at  Dumblane,  Arbroath,  Dunkeld,  and  in  many  other 
localities ;  and  Holyi'ood  Palace,  still  retains  part  of  its 
elegant  early  fourteenth  century  chapel. 

Of    secular    and    domestic   work    Linlith^jrow   is    a  fair 


92 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


specimen,  but  of  late  date.  Most  of  the  castles  and 
castellated  mansions  of  Scotland  belong  indeed  to  a  later 
time  than  the  Gothic  period,  though  there  is  a  strong  in- 
fusion of  Gothic  feeling  in  the  very  j)icturesc|ue  style  in 
which  they  are  designed. 

Wales  is  distinguished  for  the  splendid  series  of  castles 
to  which  allusion  has  been  made  in  a  previous  chapter. 
They  were  erected  at  the  best  time  of  English  Gothic 
architecture  (Edward  I.)  under  English  direction,  and  are 
finely  designed  and  solidly  built.  Wales  can  also  boast 
the  interesting  Cathedrals  of  Chester,  Llandaff,  St.  David's, 
and  some  smaller  churches,  but  in  every  case  there  is  little 
to  distinguish  them  from  contemporary  English  work. 

Ireland  is  more  remarkable  for  antiquities  of  a  date 
antei'ior  to  the  beginning  of  the  Gothic  period  than  for 
works  belonging  to  it.  A  certain  amount  of  graceful 
and  simple  domestic  work,  however,  exists  there ;  and  in 
addition  to  the  cathedrals  of  Kildare,  Cashel,  and  Dublin, 
numerous  monastic  buildings,  not  as  a  rule  large  or 
ambitious,  but  often  graceful  and  picturesque,  are 
scattered  about. 


Miserere  Seat  in  Welle  Cathedral. 


2jjM,^^^^j:&M'-<:^M^ 


CHAPTER  VII. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE    IN    CENTRAL    AND    NORTHERN     EUROPE. 


GERMANY,  —  CHRONOLOGICAL    SKETCH. 


THE  architecture  of  Gei'many,  from  the  twelfth  to  the 
sixteenth  centuries,  can  be  divided  into  an  early,  a 
middle,  and  a  late  period,  with  tolerable  distinctness.  Of 
these,  the  early  period  possesses  the  greatest  interest,  and  the 
peculiarities  of  its  buildings  are  the  most  marked  and  most 
beautiful.  In  the  middle  period,  German  Gothic  bore  a 
very  close  general  resemblance  to  the  Gothic  of  the  same 
time  in  France  ;  and,  as  a  rule,  such  points  of  difference 
as  exist  are  not  in  favour  of  the  German  work.  Late 
Gothic  work  in  Germany  is  very  fantastic  and  unattractive. 
Through  the  twelfth,  and  part  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
turies, the  architects  of  Germany  pursued  a  course  parallel 
with  that  followed  in  France  and  in  England,  but  with- 
out adopting  the  pointed  arch.  They  developed  the 
simple  and  rude  Romanesque  architecture  which  prevailed 
throughout  Europe  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  and 
which  they  learnt  originally  from  Byzantine  artists  who  fled 
from  their  own  country  during  the  reign  of  the  iconoclasts  ; 
and  they  not  only  carried  it  to  a  point  of  elaboration  which 
was  abreast  of  the  art  of  our  best  Noi'man  architecture, 


94 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


but  went  on  further  in  the  same  course  ;  for  while  the 
French  and  ourselves,  were  adopting  lancet  windows  and 
pointed  arches,  they  continued  to  employ  the  round- 
headed    window  and   the   semi-circular   arch  in  buildings 


Fio.  41— Abbev  Church  of  Arnstkin.     (12th  and  13th  Centuries  ) 

which  in  their  ?ize,  richness,  loftiness,  and  general  style, 
correspond  with  early  Gothic  examples  in  other  countries. 
This  eai  ly  German  architecture  has  been  sometimes  called 
fully  developed  Komanesque,  and  sometimes  round-arched 


CENTRAL  AND  NORTHERN  EUROPE.  95 

Gothic,  and  both  terms  may  be  applied  to  it  without 
impropriety,  for  it  partakes  of  the  qualities  implied  by  each. 
The  Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles  at  Cologne,  and  those 
of  St.  Mai-tin  and  St,  Maria  in  Capitolo,  in  the  same  city, 
may  be  referred  to  as  among  the  best  woi-ks  of  this  class. 
Each  of  these  has  an  eastern  apse,  and  also  an  apsidal  ter- 
mination to  each  transept.  The  Apostles'  church  has  a  low 
octagon  at  the  crossing,  and  its  sky  line  is  further  bi'oken 
up  by  western  and  eastern  towers,  the  latter  of  compara- 
tively small  size  and  octagonal ;  and  under  the  eaves  of  the 
roof  occurs  an  arcade  of  small  arches. 

A  view  of  the  Abbey  Church  of  Arnstein  (Fig.  41)  illus- 
trates some  of  the  features  of  these  transitional  churches.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  though  there  is  no  transept,  there  are 
no  less  than  four  towers,  two  octagonal,  and  two  squai'e, 
and  that  the  apse  is  a  strongly  developed  feature. 

In  the  church  at  Andeinach,  of  which  we  give  an  illus- 
tration (Fig.  42),  the  same  arrangement,  namely,  that  of 
four  towers,  two  to  the  west,  and  two  to  the  east,  may 
be  noticed ;  but  there  is  not  the  same  degree  of  difference 
between  the  towers,  and  the  i-esult  is  less  happy.  This 
example,  like  the  last,  has  no  central  feature,  and  in  both 
the  arcade  under  the  eaves  of  the  roof  is  conspicuous  only 
by  its  absence.  It  does,  however,  occur  on  the  western 
towers  at  Andernach. 

The  pointed  arch,  when  adopted  in  Germany,  was  in  all 
probability  borrowed  from  France,  as  the  general  aspect 
of  German  churches  of  pointed  ai-chitecture  seems  to  prove. 
The  greatest  Gothic  cathedral  of  Germany,  Cologne 
Cathedral,  was  not  commenced  till  about  the  year  1275, 
and  its  choir  was  probably  completed  during  the  first 
quarter  of  the  fourteenth  centui'y.  This  cathedral,  one  of 
the  largest  in  Europe,  is  also  one  of  the  grandest  efforts  of 


liiiillllH  I  ^ 


CENTRAL  AND  NORTHERN  EUROPE.  97 

medifeval  architecture,  and  it  closely  resembles  French  ex- 
amples of  the  same  period,  both  in  its  general  treatment, 
and  in  the  detail  of  its  features.  The  plan  of  Cologne 
Cathedral  (Fig.  46)  is  one  of  the  most  regular  and  sym- 
metrical which  has  come  down  to  us  from  the  middle 
ages.  The  works  were  carried  on  slowly  after  the  choir 
was  consecrated,  but  without  any  deviation  from  the 
original  plan,  though  some  alteration  in  style  and  details 
crept  in.  In  our  own  day  the  works  have  been  resumed 
and  vigorously  pushed  on  towards  completion ;  and,  the 
original  drawings  having  been  preserved,  the  two  western 
towers,  the  front,  and  other  portions  have  been  carried  on  in 
accordance  with  them.  Cologne,  accordingly,  presents  the 
almost  unique  spectacle  of  a  great  Gothic  church,  erected 
without  deviation  from  its  original  plan,  and  completed  in 
the  style  in  which  it  was  begun.  It  is  fair  to  add  that 
though  splendid  in  the  extreme,  this  cathedral  has  far  less 
charm,  and  less  of  that  peculiar  quality  of  mystery  and 
vitality  than  many,  we  might  say  most,  of  the  great 
cathedrals  of  Europe. 

The  plan  consists  of  a  nave  of  eight  bays,  two  of  which 
form  a  kind  of  vestibule,  and  five  avenues,  i.e.  two  aisles 
on  each  side  ;  transepts  of  four  bays  each,  with  single 
aisles ;  and  a  choir  of  four  bays  and  an  apse,  the  double 
aisle  of  the  nave  being  continued  and  carried  down  the 
choir.  That  part  of  the  outer  aisle  which  sweeps  round 
the  apse  has  been  formed  into  a  series  of  seven  polygonal 
chapels,  thus  gaining  a  complete  chevet.*  Over  the  crossing 
there  is  a  comparatively  slender  spire,  and  at  the  west  end 
stand  two  massive  towers  terminated  by  a  pair  of  lofty 
and  elaborate  spii'es,  of  open  tracery,  and  enriched  by 
crockets,  finials,  and  much  ornamentation.     The  cathedral 

*  See  p.  77  for  an  explanation  of  chcvct. 
G  A  H 


98  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTUEE. 

is  built  of  stone,  without  much  variation  in  colour  ;  it  is 
vaulted  throughout,  and  a  forest  of  flying  buttresses 
surrounds  it  on  all  sides.  The  beauty  of  the  tracery,  the 
magnificent  boldness  of  the  scale  of  the  whole  building, 
and  its  orderly  regularity,  are  very  imposing,  and  give  it  a 
high  rank  among  the  greatest  works  of  European  architec- 
ture ;  but  it  is  almost  too  majestic  to  be  lovely,  and  some- 
what cold  and  uninteresting  from  its  uniform  colour,  and 
perhaps  from  its  great  regularity. 

Strasburg  Cathedral — not  so  large  as  Cologne — has 
been  built  at  various  times ;  the  nave  and  west  front  are 
the  work  of  the  best  Gothic  period.  This  building  has 
a  nave  and  •  single  aisles,  short  transepts,  and  a  short 
apsidal  choir.  There  is  great  richness  in  much  of  the 
work  ;  double  tracery,  i.e.  a  second  layer,  so  to  speak,  of 
tracery,  is  here  employed  in  the  windows,  and  extended 
beyond  them,  but  the  effect  is  not  happy.  The  front  was 
designed  to  receive  two  open  tracery  spires,  but  only  one  of 
them  has  been  erected.  It  is  amazingly  intricate  and  rich, 
the  workmanship  is  very  astonishing,  but  the  artistic  effect 
is  not  half  so  good  as  that  of  many  plain  stone  spires. 

Another  important  German  church  famous  for  an  open 
spire  is  the  cathedral  at  Fribui'g.  Here  only  one  tower, 
standing  at  the  middle  of  the  west  front,  was  ever  in- 
tended, and  partly  because  the  composition  is  complete 
as  proposed,  and  partly  because  the  design  of  the  tracery 
in  the  spire  itself  is  more  telling,  this  building  forms  a 
more  effective  object  than  Strasburg,  though  by  no  means 
so  lofty  or  so  grandiose. 

The  Cathedral  of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna  is  a  large  and 
exceedingly  rich  church.  In  this  building  the  side  aisles 
are  carried  to  almost  the  same  height  as  the  centre  avenue 
— an  arrangement   not    infrequent  in    German    churches 


Fig.  43.— Church  of  St.  Bahbara  at  Kuttexberg.  East  End.  (1358— 15iS.) 

H  2 


100  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

having  little  save  novelty  to  recommend  it,  and  by  which 
the  triforium,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  clerestory  disappear,  and 
the  church  is  lighted  solely  by  large  side  windows.  The 
three  avenues  are  covered  by  one  wide  roof,  which  makes 
a  vast  and  rather  clumsy  display  externally.  A  lofty 
tower,  surmounted  by  a  fine  and  elaborate  spire  of  open 
tracery,  stands  on  one  side  of  the  church — an  unusual 
position — and  an  unfinished  companion  tower  is  begun  on 
the  corresponding  side.  Great  churches  and  cathedrals 
are  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  cities  of  Germany,  but 
their  salient  points  are,  as  a  rule,  si^nilar  to  those  of 
the  examples  which  have  been  already  described. 

The  incomplete  Church  of  St.  Barbara  at  Kuttenberg,  in 
Bohemia,  is  one  of  somewhat  exceptional  design.  It  has 
double  aisles,  but  the  side  walls  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
length  of  the  church  rest  upon  the  arcade  dividing  the 
two  aisles,  instead  of  that  separating  the  centre  avenue  from 
the  side  one  ;  and  a  vault  over  the  inner  side  aisle  forms 
in  effect  a  kind  of  balcony  or  gallery  in  the  nave.  The 
illustration  (Fig.  43)  which  we  give  of  the  exterior  does  not 
of  course  indicate  this  peculiarity,  but  it  shows  a  very  good 
example  of  a  German  adaptation  of  the  French  chevet,  and 
may  be  considered  as  a  specimen  of  German  pointed  archi- 
tecture at  its  ripest  stage.  The  church  is  vaulted,  as  might 
be  inferred  from  the  forest  of  flying  buttresses  ;  and  the 
vaulting  displays  some  resemblance  to  our  English  fan- 
vaulting  in  general  idea. 

German  churches  include  some  specimens  of  unusual 
disposition  or  form,  as  for  example  the  Church  of  St.  Gereon 
at  Cologne,  with  an  oval  choir,  and  one  or  two  double 
churches,  one  of  the  most  curious  being  the  one  at 
Schwartz-Bheindorif,  of  which  we  giv3  a  section  and  view 
Figs.  44,  45.) 


CENTRAL  AND  NORTHERN  EUROPE.  101 

In  their  doorways  and  porches  the  German  architects 
are  often  very  happy.  Our  illustration  (Fig.  47)  of  one  of 
the  portals  of  the  church  at  Thann  may  be  taken  as  giving 
a  good  idea  of  the  amount  of  rich  ornament  often  con- 
centrated here  :  it  displays  a  wealth  of  decorative  sculp- 
ture, which  was  one  of  the  great  merits  of  the  German 
architects. 

The  latest  development  of  Gothic  in  Germany,  of  which 
the  Church  of  St.  Catherine  at  Oppenheim  (Fjg,  -18)  is  a 
specimen,  was  marked  (just  as  late  French  was  by  flam- 
boyant tracery,  and  late  English  by  fan-vaulting)  by  a 
peculiarity  in  the  treatment  of  mouldings  by  which  they 
were  robbed  of  almost  all  their  grace  and  beauty,  while 


Fig.  4-i. — Double  Church  at  Suhwaktz-Rheindorff.     Slction.     (1158.) 

the  execution  of  them  became  a  kind  of  masonic  puzzle. 
Two  or  more  groups  of  mouldings  were  supposed  to  co- 
exist in  the  same  stone,  and  sometimes  a  part  of  one 
group,  sometimes  a  part  of  the  other  group,  became  visible 
at  the  surface.  The  name  given  to  this  eccentric  develop- 
ment is  interpenetration. 

Secular  architecture  in  Germany,  though  not  carried  to 
such  a  pitch  of  perfection  as  in  Belgium,  was  by  no  means 
overlooked  ;  but  the  examples  are  not  numerous.  In  some 
of    the    older    cities,    such   as    Prague,    Nuremberg,    and 


Fig.  -15. — DorBLE  Chuech  at  Sch^"abtz-Ehi;indo£FF.    (a.d.  1158.; 


CENTKAL  A>;D    NORTHERN    EUROPE.  103 

Frankfort,  much  picturesque  domestic  architecture  abounds, 
most  of  it  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  and 
even  later,  and  all  full  of  piquancy  and  beauty.  In  North 
Germany,  where  there  is  a  large  tract  of  country  in  which 
building  stone  is  scarce,  a  style  of  bx'ick  architectui-e  was 
developed,  which  was  applied  to  all  sox'ts  of  purposes  with 
great  success.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  brick  build- 
ings are  the  large  dwelling-houses,  with  facades  ornamented 
by  brick  tracery  and  panelling,  to  be  found  in  Eastern 
Prussia,  together  Avith  some  town  halls  and  similar 
buildings. 

GERMANY — ANALYSIS    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Plan. 

The  points  of  difference  between  German  and  French 
Gothic  are  not  so  numerous  as  to  render  a  very  minute 
analysis  of  the  Gothic  of  Germany  requisite  in  older  to 
make  them  clear. 

The  plans  of  German  churches  usually  show  internal 
piers  ;  and  columns  occur  but  rarely.  The  churches  have 
nave  and  aisles,  transepts  and  apsidal  choir ;  but  they 
are  peculiar  from  the  frequent  use  of  apses  at  the  ends  of 
the  transepts,  and  also  from  the  occurrence,  in  not  a  few 
instances,  of  an  apse  at  the  west  end  of  the  nave  as 
well  as  at  the  east  end  of  the  choir.  They  are  almost 
invai'iably  vaulted. 

As  the  style  advanced,  large  churches  were  constantly 
planned  with  double  aisles,  and  the  western  ap^e  dis- 
appeared. Some  German  church  plans,  notably  those  of 
Cologne  Cathedral  (Fig.  46)  and  the  great  church  of  St. 
Lawrence  at  Nuremberg,  are  fine  specimens  of  regularity 
of  disposition,  though  full  of  many  parts. 


Fuj.  46.— Cologne  Cathedral.     Ground  Plan.      (Begun  124S.) 


CENTRAL  AND  NORTHERN  EUROPE.  105 

Walls,  Toioers,  and  Gables. 

The  German  architects  delighted  in  towers  with  pointed 
roofri,  and  in  a  multiplicity  of  them.  A  highly  characteristic 
feature  is  a  tower  of  great  mass,  but  often  extremely 
low,  covering  the  crossing.  The  Cathedral  at  Mayence 
shows  a  fine  example  of  this  feature,  which  was  often 
not  moi'e  than  a  low  octagon.  Western  towers,  square  on 
plan,  are  common,  and  small  towers,  frequently  octagonal, 
are  often  employed  to  flank  the  choir  or  in  combination  with 
the  transepts.  These  in  early  examples,  are  always  sur- 
mounted by  high  roofs  ;  in  late  ones,  by  stone  spires,  often 
of  rich  open  tracery.  A  very  characteristic  feature  of  the 
round  arched  Gothic  churches  is  an  arcade  of  small  arches 
immediately  below  the  eaves  of  the  roof  and  opening  into 
the  space  above  the  vaults  (Fig.  45).  This  is  rarely 
wanting  in  churches  built  previous  to  the  time  when  the 
French  type  was  followed  implicitly. 

The  gables  are  seldom  such  fine  compositions  as  in 
France,  or  even  in  Italy ;  but  in  domestic  and  secular 
buildings  many  striking  gabled  fronts  occur,  the  gable 
being  often  stepped  in  outline  and  full  of  windows. 

Roofs  and   Vaults. 

Vaults  are  universal  in  the  great  churches,  and  German 
vaulting  has  some  special  peculiarities,  but  they  are  such 
as  I  hardly  come  within  the  scope  of  this  handbook.  Roofs, 
however,  are  so  conspicuous  that  in  any  general  account  of 
German  architecture  attention  must  be  paid  to  them.  They 
were  from  very  eai-ly  times  steep  in  pitch  and  picturesque  in 
outline,  and  are  evidently  much  relied  upon  as  giving  play 
to  the  sky-line.  Indeed,  for  variety  of  form  and  piquancy 
of  detail  the  German  roofs  are  the  most  successful  of  the 


Fig.  47.— Westeux  Doorway  of  Church  at  Thaxx.     (14th  C'EXTLRy.) 


CENTRAL  AND  NORTHERN  EUROPE. 


107 


middle  ages.     The  spires,  as  will  have  been  easily  gathered 
from,  the  descriptions  of   those  at  Strasburg,   Cologne,  A'c, 


Fig.  48.— Church  ok  St.  Catherine  at  Oppekheim.     (1202  to  1439.) 

became  extremely  elaborate,  and  were  constiucted  in  many 
cases  entirely  of  open  tracery. 


108  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 


Openimjs. 

Openings  are,  on  the  whole,  treated  very  much  as  the 
French  treated  them,  A  good  example  is  the  western  door- 
way at  Thann  (Fig.  47)  ;  but  the  use  of  double  tracery  in 
the  windows  in  late  examples  is  characteristic.  Sometimes 
a  partial  screen  of  outside  tracery  is  employed  in  other 
features  besides  windows,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  very 
elegant  doorway  of  St.  Sebald's  Church  at  Nuremberg, 
which  we  have  illustrated  (Fig.  49). 


Ornaments. 

The  ornaments  of  German  Gothic  are  often  profuse, 
but  rarely  quite  happy.  Sculpture,  often  of  a  high  class, 
carving  of  every  sort,  tracery,  and  panelling,  are  largely 
employed ;  but  with  a  hardness  and  a  tendency  to  cover 
all  surfaces  with  a  pro-fusion  of  weak  imitations  of 
tracery  that  disfigures  much  of  the  masonry.  The  tracery 
became  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  time  intricate  and 
unmeaning,  and  the  interpenetrating  mouldings  already 
described,  though  of  course  intended  to  be  ornamental,  are 
'more  perplexing  and  confusing  than  pleasing  :  the  carving 
exaggerates  the  natural  markings  of  the  foliage  represented, 
and,  being  thin,  and  very  boldly  undercut,  resembles  leaves 
beaten  out  in  metal,  rather  than  foliage  happily  and  easily 
imitated  in  stone,  which  is  what  good  architectural  carving 
should  be. 

The  use  of  coloured  building  materials  and  of  inlays 
and  mosaics  does  not  prevail  to  any  great  extent  in 
Germany,  though  stained  glass  is  often  to  be  found  and 
coloured  wall  decoration  occasionally. 


Fig.  49.— St.  Sebald's  Chuech  at  Nueembeeg.      ■" 
The  Beide's  Dooeway.     (1303—1377.) 


no  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


Construction  and  Design. 

The  marked  peculiarities  of  construction  by  whicli  the 
German  Gothic  buildings  are  most  distinguished,  are  the 
prevalent  high-pitched  roofs,  the  vaulting  with  aisle - 
vaults  carried  to  the  same  height  as  in  the  centre,  and 
the  employment  in  certain  districts  of  brick  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  stone,  all  of  which  have  been  already  referred 
to.  In  a  great  part  of  that  large  portion  of  Europe,  which 
is  included  under  the  name  of  Germany,  the  materials  and 
modes  of  construction  adopted  during  the  middle  ages, 
bear  a  close  resemblance  to  those  in  general  use  in  France 
and  England. 

Some  of  the  chai'acteristics  of  German  Gothic  design 
have  been  already  alluded  to.  The  Gei'man  architects 
display  an  exuberant  fancy,  a  great  love  of  the  picturesque, 
and  even  the  grotesque,  and  a  strong  predilection  for 
creating  artificial  difficulties  in  order  to  enjoy  the  pleasure 
of  surmounting  them.  Their  work  is  full  of  unrest ;  they 
attach  small  value  to  the  artistic  quality  of  breadth,  and 
destroy  the  value  of  the  plain  surfaces  of  their  buildings  as 
contrasts  to  the  openings,  by  cutting  them  up  by  mouldings 
and  enrichments  of  various  sorts.  The  sculpture  intro- 
duced is,  as  a  rule,  naturalistic  rather  than  conventional. 
The  capitals  of  piers  and  columns  are  often  fine  specimens 
of  eiiective  carving,  while  the  delicate  and  ornamental  de- 
tails of  the  tabernacle  work  with  which  church  furniture  is 
enriched,  are  unsurpassed  in  elaboration,  and  often  of  raie 
beauty.  The  churches  of  Nuremberg  are  specially  dis- 
tinguished for  the  richness  and  number  of  their  sculptured 
fittings.  There  is,  moreover,  in  some  of  the  best  German 
buildings  a  rugged  grandeur  which  approaches  the  sublime  ; 


CENTRAL  AND  NOETHEEN  EUEOPE.  Ill 

and  in  the  humbler  ones  a  large  amount  of  picturesque  and 
thoroughly  successful  architecture. 

In  the  smaller  objects  upon  Avhich  the  art  of  the  architect 
was  often  employed  the  Germans  were  frequently  happy. 
Public  fountains,  such  for  example  as  the  one  illustrated 
in  Chapter  II.  (Fig.  10),  are  to  be  met  within  the  streets 
of  many  towns,  and  rarely  fail  to  please  by  their  simple, 
graceful,  and  often  quaint  design.  Crosses,  monuments, 
and  individual  features  in  domestic  buildings,  such  e.g.  as 
bay  windows,  frequently  show  a  very  skilful  and  pic- 
turesque treatment  and  happy  enrichment. 


NORTHERN   EUEOPE. 

Gothic  architecture  closely  resembling  German  work  may 
be  found  in  Switzerland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark ;  but  there  are  few  very  conspicuous  buildings,  and 
not  enough  variety  to  form  a  distinct  style.  In  Norway  and 
Sweden  curious  and  picturesque  buildings  exist,  erected 
solely  of  timber,  and  both  there  and  in  Switzerland  many 
of  the  traditions  of  the  Gothic  period  have  been  handed 
down  to  our  own  day  witli  comparatively  little  change,  in 
the  pleasing  and  often  highly  enriched  timber  buildings 
which  are  to  be  met  with  in  considerable  numbers  in 
those  countries. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 


GOTHIC      ARCHITECTURE      IN      SOUTHERN      EUROPE. 


ITALY    AND    SICILY — TOPOGRAPHICAL    SKETCH. 


GOTHIC  architecture  in  Italy  may  be  considered  as 
a  foreign  importation.  The  Italians,  it  is  true, 
displayed  their  natural  taste  and  artistic  instinct  in  their 
use  of  the  style,  and  a  large  number  of  their  works 
possess,  as  we  shall  see,  strongly- marked  characteristics 
and  much  charm ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  the  feeling 
that  the  architects  were  working  in  a  style  not  thoroughly 
congenial  to  their  instincts  nor  to  the  traditions  they  had 
inherited  from  classical  times  ;  and  not  entirely  in  harmony 
with  the  requirements  of  the  climate  and  the  nature  of  their 
building  materials. 

Italian  Gothic  may  be  conveniently  considered  geo- 
graphically, dividing  the  buildings  into  three  groups,  the 
first  and  most  important  containing  the  architecture  of 
Northern  Italy  (Lombardy,  Venetia,  and  the  neighbour- 
hood), the  second  that  of  Central  Italy  (Tuscany,  etc.),  the 
third  that  of  the  south  and  of  Sicily — a  classification  which 
will  suit  the  subject  better  than  the  chronological  aiTange- 
ment  which  has  been  our  guide  in  examining  the  art  of 


SOUTHERN    EUROPE.  113 

other  countries ;  for  the  variations  occasioned  by  develop- 
ruent  as  time  went  on  are  less  strongly  marked  in  Italy 
than  elsewhere. 

Northern  Italy. 

Lombardy  in  the  Romanesque  period  was  thoroughly 
under  German  influence,  and  the  buildings  remaining  to 
us  from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  bear  a  close 
resemblance  to  those  erected  north  of  the  Alps  at  the  same 
date.  The  twelfth  century  Lombard  churches  again  are  spe- 
cimens of  round-arched  Gothic,  just  as  truly  as  those  on  the 
banks  of  the  Rhine.  Many  of  them  are  also  peculiar  as 
being  erected  chiefly  in  brick-work  ;  the  great  alluvial  plain 
of  Lombardy  being  deficient  in  building-stone.  St.  Michele 
at  Pavia,  a  well-known  church  of  this  date,  may  be  cited 
as  a  good  example.  This  is  a  vaulted  church,  with  an 
apsidal  east  end  and  transepts.  The  round  arch  is  em- 
ployed in  this  building,  but  the  general  proportions  and 
treatment  are  essentially  Gothic.  A  striking  campanile 
(bell  tower)  belongs  to  the  church,  and  is  a  good  specimen 
of  a  feature  very  frequently  met  with  in  Lombardy ;  the 
tower  here  (and  usually)  is  square,  and  rises  by  successive 
stages,  but  with  only  few  and  small  openings  or  ornaments, 
to  a  considerable  height.  There  are  no  buttresses,  no 
diminution  of  bulk,  no  staircase  turrets.  At  the  summit 
is  an  open  belfry-stage,  with  large  semicircular  headed 
arches,  crowned  by  a  cornice  and  a  low-pitched  conical  roof.* 
In  the  same  city  a  good  example  of  an  Italian  Gothic 
church,  erected  after  the  pointed  arch  had  been  introduced, 
may  be  found  in  the  church  of  Sta.   Maria  del  Carmine. 

*  An  ilhistratiou  of  such  a  campanile  will  be  found  in  that  belonging 
to  the  Cathedral  of  Siena  (Fig.  52). 

G  A  1 


114  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  west  front  of  this  church  is  but  clumsy  in  general 
design.  Its  width  is  divided  into  five  compartments  by  flat 
buttresses.  The  gables  are  crowned  by  a  deep  and  heavy 
cornice  of  moulded  brick  and  the  openings  are  grouped 
with  but  little  skill.  Individually,  however,  the  features  of 
this  front  are  very  beautiful,  and  the  great  wheel-window, 
full  of  tracery,  and  the  two-light  windows  flanking  it, 
may  be  quoted  as  remarkable  specimens  of  the  ornamental 
laboration  which  can  be  accomplished  in  brickwork. 

The  campanile  of  this  church,  like  the  one  just  de- 
scribed, is  a  plain  square  tower.  It  rises  by  successive  stages, 
each  taller  than  the  last,  each  stage  being  marked  by  a 
rich  brick  coi-nice.  The  belfry- stage  has  on  each  face  a 
three-light  window,  with  a  traceried  head,  and  above  the 
cornice  the  square  tower  is  finished  by  a  tall  conical  roof, 
circular  on  plan,  an  arrangement  not  unfi'equently  met  with. 

The  Certosa,  the  great  Carthusian  Church  and  INIonastery 
near  Pavia,*  best  known  by  the  elaborate  mai'ble  front 
added  in  a  different  style  about  a  century  after  the  erection 
of  the  main  building,  is  a  good  example  of  a  highly-enriched 
church,  with  dependencies,  built  in  brick-work,  and  possess- 
ing most  of  the  distinctive  peculiarities  of  a  great  Gothic 
church,  except  the  general  use  of  the  pointed  arch.  It  was 
begun  in  1396,  and  is  consistent  in  its  exterior  archi- 
tecture, the  front  excepted,  though  it  took  a  long  time  to 
build.  Attached  to  it  are  two  cloisters,  of  which  the 
arches  are  semi-circular,  and  the  enrichments,  of  wonderful 
beauty,  are  modelled  in  terra  cotta. 

This  church  resembles  the  great  German  round-arched 
Gothic  churches  on  the  Ehine  in  many  of  its  features. 
Its  plan  includes  a  nave,  with  aisles  and  side  chapels,  tran- 
septs and  a  choir.  The  eastern  arm  and  the  transepts  are 
*  See  Frontispiece. 


SOUTIIEHN    EUROPE.  115 

e.ach  ornamented  by  an  apse,  somewhat  smaller  than  would 
bo  met  with  in  a  German  church  ;  but  as  a  compensation 
each  of  these  three  arms  has  two  side  apses,  as  well  as  the 
one  at  the  end.  The  exterior  possesses  the  German  arcade 
of  little  arches  immediately  under  the  eaves  of  the  roof ; 
it  is  marked  by  the  same  multiplicity  of  small  towers,  each 
with  its  own  steep  roof  ;  and  it  possesses  the  same  striking 
central  feature,  internally  a  small  dome,  externally  a  kind 
of  light  pyramidal  structure,  ornamented  by  small  arcades 
rising  tier  above  tier,  and  ending  in  a  central  pointed  roof. 

The  finest  Gothic  cathedral  in  North  Italy,  if  dimen- 
sions, general  effectiveness,  and  beauty  of  material  be  the 
test,  is  that  of  Milan.  This  building  is  disfigured  by  a  west 
front  in  a  totally  inappropriate  style,  but  apart  from  this 
it  is  virtually  a  German  chui'ch  of  the  first  class,  erected 
entirely  in  white  marble,  and  covered  with  a  profusion  of 
decoration.  Its  dimensions  show  that,  with  the  exception 
of  Seville,  this  was  the  largest  of  all  the  Gothic  cathedrals 
of  Europe.  It  has  double  aisles,  transepts,  and  a  polygonal 
apse.  At  the  crossing  of  the  nave  and  transepts  a  low 
dome  rises,  covered  by  a  conical  roof,  and  surmounted 
by  an  elegant  marble  spire. 

The  structure  is  vaulted  throughout,  and  each  of  the 
great  piers  which  carry  the  nave  arcade  is  surmounted  by 
a  mass  of  niches  and  tabernacle  work,  occupied  by  statues — 
a  splendid  substitute  for  ordinary  capitals.  The  intei-ior 
effect  of  Milan  Cathedral  is  grand  and  full  of  beauty. 
The  exterior,  though  much  of  its  power  is  destroyed  by 
the  weakly-designed  ornament  with  which  all  the  surfaces 
of  the  walls  are  covered,  is  endowed  with  a  wonderful 
charm.  This  building  was  commenced  in  the  year  1385, 
and  consecrated  in  the  year  1418,  The  details  of  the 
window-tracery,  pinnacles,  etc.  (but  not  the  statues  which 

I  2 


116  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

are  of  Italian  character),  correspond  very  closely  to  those 
of  German  buildings  erected  at  the  same  period  (close  of 
the  fourteenth  century). 

Milan  possesses,  among  other  examples  of  pointed  archi- 
tecture, one  secular  building,  the  Great  Hospital,  well 
known  for  its  Gothic  facade.  This  hospital  was  founded 
in  1456,  and  most  of  it  is  of  later  date  and  of  renaissance 
character  ;  the  street  front  of  two  storeys  in  height,  with 
pointed  arches,  is  very  I'ich.  The  church  of  Chiaravalle, 
near  Milan,  which  has  been  more  than  once  illustrated  and 
described,  ought  not  to  be  passed  unnoticed,  on  account 
of  the  beauty  of  its  fully  developed  central  dome.  It  was 
built  in  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  (1221). 

Almost  all  the  great  cities  of  North  Italy  possess  striking 
Gothic  buildings.  Genoa,  for  instance,  can  boast  of  her 
cathedral,  with  a  front  in  alternate  courses  of  black  and 
white  marble,  dating  from  about  the  year  1300,  and  full 
of  beauty ;  the  details  bearing  much  resemblance  to 
the  best  Western  Gothic  work.  Passing  eastward,  Vtrona 
possesses  a  wealth  of  Gothic  work  in  the  well- known 
tombs  of  the  Scaligers,  the  churches  of  Sta.  Anastasia, 
San  Zenone,  and  several  minor  churches  and  campaniles ; 
and  at  Cooio,  Bergamo,  Vicenza,  Padua,  Treviso,  Cremona, 
Bologna,  and  many  other  cities  and  towns,  good  churches 
of  pointed  architecture  are  to  be  found. 

Our  illustration  (Fig.  50)  of  the  ancient  Palace  of  the 
Jurisconsults  at  Cremona,  is  a  good  specimen  of  the 
secular  architecture  of  North  Italy.  Originally  the  lower 
storey  was  a  loggia,  or  open  arcaded  storey,  but  the  arches 
have  been  built  up.  Telling,  simple,  and  graceful,  this 
building  owes  its  effect  chiefly  to  its  well-designed  openings 
and  a  chaiacteristic  brick  cornice.  It  is  entirely  without 
buttresses,  has  no  spreading  base,  no  gables,  and  no  visible 


SOUTHERN    EUROPE. 


117 


roof  :  some  of  these  features  would  have  been  present  had 
it  been  designed  and  erected  north  of  the  Alps. 


Fig.  oO. — TuE  Palace  of  thk  Jirisconsults  at  Cremona. 

Venice  is  the  city  in  the  whole  of  North  Italy  where 
Gothic  architecture  has  had  freest  scope  and  has  achieved 


118  GOTHIC    AKCHITECTUKE. 

the  greatest  success,  not,  howevei-,  in  ecclesiastical,  but  in 
secular  buildings.  The  great  Cathedral  of  St.  Mark,  perhaps 
the  most  wonderful  church  in  Europe,  certainly  the  fore- 
most in  Italy,  is  a  Byzantine  building,  and  though  it  has 
received  some  additions  in  Gothic  times,  does  not  fairly 
come  within  the  scope  of  this  volume  ;  and  the  Gothic 
churches  of  Venice  are  not  very  numerous  nor,  with  the 
exception  of  the  fine  brick  church  of  the  Frari,  extremely 
remarkable.  On  the  banks  of  the  Grand  Canal  and  its 
tributaries,  however,  stand  not  a  few  Gothic  palaces  of 
noble  design  (see  Fig.  9,  p.  18),  while  the  Ducal  Palace 
itself  alone  is  sufficient  to  confer  a  reputation  vipon  the  city 
which  it  adorns. 

The  Ducal  Palace  at  "Venice  is  a  large  rectangular  block 
of  buildings  erected  round  a  vast  quadrangle.  Of  its  exterior 
two  sides  only  are  visible  from  a  distance,  one  being  the  sea 
front  looking  over  the  lagoon,  and  the  other  the  land  front 
directed  towards  the  piazzetta.  Rather  less  than  one  half 
the  height  of  each  front  is  occupied  by  two  storeys  of 
arcades ;  the  lower  storey  bold,  simple,  and  vigorous ; 
the  upper  storey  lighter,  and  ending  in  a  mass  of  bold 
tracery.  Above  this  open  work,  and  resting  upon  it,  rises 
the  external  wall  of  the  palace,  faced  with  marble  in 
alternate  slabs  of  rose-colour  and  white,  pierced  by  a  few 
large  pointed  windows  and  crowned  by  an  oj^en  parapet. 
Few  buildings  are  so  familiar,  even  to  untravelled  persons, 
as  this  fine  work,  which  owes  its  great  charm  to  the  extent, 
beauty,  and  mingled  solidity  and  grace  of  its  arcades,  and 
to  the  fine  sculpture  by  which  the  capitals  from  which 
they  spring  are  enriched. 

The  Gothic  palaces  are  almost  invariably  remarkable  for 
the  skill  with  which  the  openings  in  their  fronts  ai*e 
arranged  and    designed.      It  was  not  necessaiy  to  render 


SOUTHERN    EUROPE.  Ill) 

any  other  part  of  the  exterior  specially  architectural,  as 
the  palaces  stand  side  by  side  like  houses  in  a  modern 
street,  as  can  be  seen  from  our  illustration  (Fig.  9).  In 
almost  all  cases  a  lax'ge  proportion  of  the  openings  are 
grouped  together  in  the  centre  of  the  front,  and  the  sides 
are  left  comparatively  plain  and  strong-looking,  the  com- 
position presenting  a  centre  and  two  wings.  By  this 
simple  expedient  each  portion  of  the  composition  is  made 
to  add  emphasis  to  the  othei",  and  a  powerful  but  not 
inharmonious  contrast  between  the  open  centre  and  the 
solid  sides  is  called  into  existence.  The  earliest  Gothic 
buildings  in  point  of  date  are  often  the  most  delicate  and 
graceful,  and  this  rule  holds  good  in  the  Gothic  palaces  of 
Venice ;  yet  one  of  the  later  palaces,  the  Ca'  d'Oro,  must 
be  at  least  named  on  account  of  the  splendid  richness  of 
its  marble  front — of  which,  however,  only  the  centre  and 
one  wing  is  built — and  the  beauty  of  the  ornament  lavishly 
employed  upon  it. 

The  balconies,  angle  windows,  and  other  minor  features 
with  which  the  Venetian  Gothic  palaces  abound,  are  among 
the  most  graceful  features  of  the  architecture  of  Italy. 

Ctniral  Italy. 

Those  towns  of  Central  Italy  (by  which  is  meant  Tuscany 
and  the  former  States  of  the  Church),  in  which  the  best 
Gothic  buildings  are  to  be  found,  are  Pisa,  Lucca,  Florence, 
Siena,  Orvieto,  and  Perugia.  As  a  general  rule  the  Gothic 
work  in  this  district  is  more  developed  and  more  lavishly 
enriched  than  that  in  Lombardy. 

In  Pisa,  the  Cathedral  and  the  Campanile  (the  famous 
leaning  tower)  belong  to  the  late  Romanesque  style,  but 
the  Baptistry,  an  elegant  ciicular  building,  has  a  good  deal 


120  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

of  Gothic  ornament  in  its  upper  storeys,  and  may  be  fairly 
classed  as  a  transitional  building.  The  most  charming 
and  thoroughly  characteristic  work  of  Gothic  architecture 
in  Pisa  is,  however,  a  small  gem  of  a  chapel,  the  church 
of  Sta.  Maria  della  Spina.  It  displays  exquisite  ornament, 
and,  notwithstanding  much  false  construction,  the  beauty 
of  its  details,  of  its  sculpture,  and  of  the  marble  of  which 
it  is  built,  invest  it  with  a  great  charm. 

Pisan  Gothic  is  remarkable  as  being  associated  with  the 
name  of  a  family  of  highly  gifted  sculptors  and  architects, 
the  Pisani,  of  whom  Nicola  Pisano  was  the  earliest  and 
greatest  artist  ;  he  was  followed  by  his  descendants 
Giovanni,  Nino,  and  Andrea.  With  the  Pisani  and  Giotto 
the  series  of  the  known  names  of  architects  of  great 
buildings  may  be  said  to  begin. 

Florence,  the  most  important  of  the  cities  we  have 
named,  is  distinguished  by  a  cathedral  built  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  one  of  the  grandest 
in  Italy.  It  has  very  few  columns,  and  its  walls  and 
vaults  are  of  great  height.  The  walls  ai^e  adorned  ex- 
ternally with  inlays  in  coloured  marble,  and  the  windows 
have  stained  glass — a  rarity  in  Italy ;  but  its  lofty  dome, 
added  after  the  completion  of  the  rest  of  the  building, 
is  its  chief  feature.  This  was  always  intended,  but  the 
pointed  octagonal  dome  actually  erected  by  Brunelleschi, 
between  the  years  1420  and  1444,  though  it  harmonises 
fairly  well  with  the  general  lines  of  the  building,  and 
forms,  as  can  be  seen  from  our  illustration  (Fig.  51),  a 
striking  object  in  all  distant  views  of  the  city,  is  probably 
very  different  from  what  was  originally  intended.  Near 
the  cathedral  stand  the  Baptistry,  famous  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  finest  gates  in  the  world,  and  the  Campanile 
of  Giotto.     This  tower  is  built,  or  at  least  faced,  entirely 


!^  ri 


122  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURF. 

with  marble ;  and  "when  it  is  stated  that  its  height  is  not 
fai'  short  of  that  of  the  Victoria  Tower  of  our  Houses  of 
Parliament,  though  of  slenderer  proportions,  it  will  be 
seen  that  it  is  magnificently  liberal  in  its  general  scheme. 
The  tower  is  covered  with  panels  of  variously  coloured 
marbles  from  base  to  summit,  and  enriched  by  fine  sculp- 
ture. The  angles  are  strengthened  by  slightly  projecting 
piers.  The  windows  are  comparativ^ely  small  till  the 
highest  or  belfry  stage  is  reached,  and  here  each  face  of 
the  tower  is  pierced  by  a  magnificent  three-light  window. 
A  deep  and  elaborate  cornice  now  crowns  the  whole,  but 
it  was  originally  designed  to  add  a  high-pitched  roof  or 
a  spire  as  a  terminal. 

Our  illustration  (Fig.  52)  shows  the  west  front  and 
campanile  of  the  Cathedral  at  Siena,  an  exceedingly  good 
specimen  of  the  beauties  and  peculiarities  of  the  style. 
This  building  was  commenced  in  1243.  The  plan  is  simple 
but  singular,  for  the  central  feature  is  a  six-sided  dome, 
at  the  crossing  of  the  nave  and  transepts ;  and  some 
ingenuity  has  been  spent  in  fitting  this  figure  to  the  arches 
of  the  main  avenues  of  the  building.  The  interior  is  rich 
and  effective ;  the  exterior,  as  can  be  seen  by  the  illustra- 
tion, is  covered  wit.h  ornament,  and  the  front  is  the  richest 
and  probably  the  best  designed  of  all  the  cathedral  fronts 
of  Central  Italy.  The  strongly -marked  horizontal  lines 
of  cornices,  arcades,  &c.,  the  moulded  gables,  the  great 
wheel-window  set  in  a  square  panel,  and  the  use  of  marble 
of  various  colours,  are  all  points  to  note.  So  is  the 
employment  of  the  semicircular  arch  for  the  doorways  of 
this  thoroughly  Gothic  building.  The  campanile  is  a  good 
example  of  that  feature,  except  that  instead  of  the  rich 
window  which  usually  occupies  the  belfry  stage,  or  highest 
storey,  two  storeys  of  small  lights  have  been  formed.     The 


Fig.  52. — Cathedual  at  Siena.    AVest  Feont  axd  Campanile. 
(Facade  begun  1284.) 


124  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

introduction  of  angle  turrets  is  not  very  usual,  and  it  here 
supplies  a  deficiency  which  makes  itself  felt  in  other 
campaniles,  where  the  junction  of  tower  and  spire  is  not 
always  happy. 

Gothic  churches  of  importance  can  be  found  in  many  of 
the  cities  and  towns  of  Central  Italy.  None  are  more 
remarkable  than  the  singular  double  church  of  St.  Francis 
at  Assisi,  with  its  wealth  of  mural  paintings  and  stained 
glass-,  and  the  cathedral  at  Orvieto  (Fig.  53)  with  its 
splendid  front. 

In  Rome,  so  rich  in  specimens  of  the  architecture  of 
many  styles  and  times,  Gothic  could  find  no  footing  ; 
the  one  solitary  church  which  can  be  claimed  as  Gothic 
may  be  taken  as  an  exception.  And  south  of  the  Capital 
there  lies  a  considerable  tract  of  country,  containing  few 
if  any  examples  of  the  style  we  are  considering. 

Southern  Italy. 

Southern  Italy  is  conveniently  grouped  with  Sicily,  but 
the  mainland  is  deficient  in  examples  of  Gothic  buildings. 
The  old  towns  of  Apulia  indeed,  such  as  Bari,  Bitonto  and 
Brindisi,  possess  an  architecture  which  the  few  who  have 
had  an  opportunity  of  examining,  declare  to  be  surpassingly 
rich  in  its  decoration,  but  it  is  for  the  most  part  Romanesque. 

The  Gothic  work  remaining  in  and  about  Naples  is  most 
of  it  extremely  florid,  and  often  rich,  but  seldom  possesses 
the  grace  and  charm  of  that  which  exists  further  north. 

Sicily  shows  the  picturesquely  mixed  results  of  a  compli- 
cation of  agencies  which  have  not  alfected  the  mainland, 
and  is  accordingly  an  interesting  field  for  architectural 
study.  The  island  was  first  under  Byzantine  influence ; 
was  next  occupied  and  held  by  the  Saracens ;  and  was  later 
seized  and  for  some  time  retained  by  the  Normans. 


Fig.  53. — Thk  Cathedral  at  Orvieto.     (Begun  1-90 ;  Facade,  1310.  i 


126  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  most  striking  early  Gothic  building  in  Sicily  is  the 
richly  adorned  cathedral  of  Monreale,  commenced  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Here  very  simple  pointed  arches  are 
made  use  of,  as  the  entire  surface  of  the  interior  is 
covered  with  mosaic  pictures  of  ISTorman  origin.  The 
small  Capella  Palatina  in  Palermo  itself  is  of  the  same 
simple  and  early  architectural  character,  and  adorned  with 
equally  magnificent  mosaics.  In  these  buildings  the 
splendour  of  the  colouring  is  only  equalled  by  the  vigorous 
and  often  pathetic  power  with  which  the  stories  of  sacred 
history  are  embodied  in  these  mosaics.  The  cathedral  of 
Cefalu  is  a  building  bearing  a  general  resemblance  to  that 
at  Monreale,  but  not  enriched  in  the  same  manner. 

Of  the  fourteenth  century  are  the  richly  ornamented 
cathedral  of  Palermo  and  that  of  Messina.  The  latter 
has  been  so  much  altered  as  to  have  lost  a  good  deal  of  its 
interest ;  but  at  Palermo  there  is  much  that  is  striking  and 
almost  unique.  This  building  has  little  in  common  with 
the  works  of  northern  or  central  Italy,  and  not  much  more 
alliance  with  the  Gothic  of  North  Europe.  It  is  richly 
panelled  and  decorated,  but  its  most  striking  feature  is 
its  bold  arcaded  portal. 

AI^ALYSrs    OF    BUILDINGS. 

Plan, 

The  plans  of  Italian  churches  are  simple,  compared  with 
those  of  the  northern  and  western  architects.  As  a  rule 
they  are  also  moderate  in  size,  and  they  bear  a  close  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  early  basilica  churches  from 
which  they  are  directly  descended.  Though  the  apse  is  all 
but  universal,  the  French  chevet,  with  its  crown  of  cluster- 
ing chapels,  was   not  adopted    in    Italy.     There    is    very 


SOUTHERN    EUROPE. —  ANALYSIS:    PLANS.  127 

much  in  common  between  the  churches  of  Lombardy  and 
those  of  Germany,  but  the  German  western  apse  and  the 
apsidal  ends  to  the  ti'ansept  do  not  occur.  The  spaces 
between  the  piers  of  the  main  arcade  are  greater  than  in 
French  or  English  examples,  so  that  there  are  fewer  piers, 
and  the  vaults  are  of  wider  span.  In  tlie  churches 
founded  by  the  great  preaching  orders,  the  division  into 
nave  and  aisle  does  not  take  place,  and  the  church  consists 
of  nothing  but  a  large  hall  for  the  congregation,  with  a 
chancel  for  the  choir. 

In  monastic,  secular,  and  domestic  building  a  general 
squareness  and  simplicity  of  plan  pi^evails,  and  where  an 
internal  arcaded  quadrangle  can  be  made  use  of  {e.g.  in 
the  cloister  of  a  monastery),  it  is  almost  always  relied  upon 
to  add  effect.  The  famous  external  arcade  at  the  Ducal 
Palace,  Venice,  was  nowhere  repeated,  though  simpler 
external  arcades  occur  frequently ;  but  it  is  so  splendid 
as  to  form,  itself  alone  a  feature  in  Italian  planning. 

The  arrangements  of  the  mansions  and  palaces  found  in 
the  great  cities  were  a  good  deal  influenced  by  the  circum- 
tance  that  it  was  customary,  in  order  to  secure  as  much 
cool  air  as  possible,  to  devote  one  of  the  upper  floors  to  the 
purpose  of  a  suite  of  reception  rooms;  to  this  was  given 
the  name  of  piano  nohile. 

Walls,  Towers,  Columns. 
Walls  are  usually  thick  and  stand  unbuttressed,  and 
rarely  have  such  slopes  and  diminutions  of  apparent  thick- 
ness towards  their  upper  pai^tas  are  not  uncommon  in  Eng- 
land. Base  mouldings  are  not  universal.  The  cornice,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  far  more  cai'ed  for,  and  is  made  much 
more  conspicuous  than  with  us.  In  the  brick  buildings 
especially  it  attains  great  development.    Above  the  cornice 


128  GOTHIC    ARCIIlTECTrRE. 

a  kind  of  ornamental  parapet,  bearing  some  resemblance 
to  battlements,  is  common.  The  strikingly  peculiar  use  of 
materials  of  difl'eient  colours  in  alternate  courses,  or  in 
panels,  to  decorate  the  wall  surfaces,  has  already  been 
referred  to.     It  is  very  chai-acteristic  of  the  style. 

The  campanile  or  bell-tower  of  an  Italian  church  is 
a  feature  very  different  from  western  towers.  It  is 
never  placed  over  the  crossing  of  nave  and  aisles  and 
rarely  forms  an  essential  part  of  the  church,  often  being 
quite  detached  and  not  seldom  placed  at  an  angle  with 
the  walls  of  the  main  building.  Such  towers  are  not  un- 
frequently  appended  to  palaces,  and  are  sometimes  {e.g.  at 
Venice)  erected  alone.  Some  of  the  Italian  cities  were 
also  remarkable  for  strong  towers  erected  in  the  city 
itself  as  fortresses  by  the  heads  of  influential  families. 
Many  of  these  are  still  standing  in  Bologna.  The  smaller 
towers  in  which  northern  architects  took  so  much  de- 
light are  almost  unknown  in  Italy,  though  on  a  few 
of  the  great  churches  of  the  north  {e.g.  the  Certosa  at  Pavia, 
and  St.  Antonio  at  Padua)  they  are  to  be  found. 

The  use  of  constructive  columns  is  general ;  piers 
are  by  no  means  unknown,  but  fine  shafts  of  marble 
meet  the  eye  frequently  in  Italian  churches.  The  con- 
stant use  of  the  column  for  decorative  purposes  is  a 
marked  characteristic.  Not  only  is  it  employed  where 
French  and  Eoglish  architects  used  it,  as  in  the  jambs  of 
doorways,  but  it  constantly  replaces  the  muilion  in  traceried 
windows.  It  is  employed  as  an  ornament  at  the  angles  of 
buildings  to  take  off  the  harshness  of  a  sharp  corner,  and 
it  is  introduced  in  many  unexpected  and  often  picturesque 
situations.  Twisted,  knotted,  and  otherwise  carved  and 
ornamental  shafts  are  not  unfrequently  made  use  of  in 
columns  that  serve  purely  decorative  purposes. 


SOUTHERN  EUROPE. — ANALYSIS  :  ARCHES. 


129 


Openings  and  Arches. 

The  constructive  arches  in  Italian  Gothic  buildings  are, 
as  a  rule,  pointed,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  at  every  period 
round  and  pointed  arches  are  indiscriminately  employed  for 
doors  and  windows,  both  being  constantly  met  with  in  the 
same  building. 

The  naves  of  Italian  churches  rarely  show  the  divi- 
sion into  three,  common  in  the  north.  The  triforium 
is  almost  invariably  absent,  and  the  clerestory  is  often 
reduced  to  a  series  of  small  round  windows,  sufficient  to 
admit  the  moderate  light  which,  in  a  very  bright  climate, 
is  grateful  in  the  interior  of  such  a  building  as  a  church  ; 
but  they  are  far  less  effective  features  than  our  own  well- 
marked  clerestory  windows. 

The  doorways  are  often  very  beautiful,  and  are  fre- 
quently sheltered  by  projecting  porches  of  extreme  elegance 
and  lightness.  The  window  openings  are,  as  a  rule,  cusped. 
An  ogee-shaped  arch  (Fig.  54)  is 
constantly  in  use  in  window-heads, 
especially  at  Venice,  and  much 
graceful  design  is  lavished  on  the 
arched  openings  of  domestic  and 
secular  buildings.  A  great  deal 
of  the  tracery  employed  is  plate 
tracery.*  The  tracery  in  terra- cotta 
has  already  been  referred  to.  In 
the  large  windows  of  the  principal 
apartments  and  other  similar  posi- 
tions of  the  palaces  in  Venice  and  Vicenza,  a  sort  of  tracery 
not  met  with  in  other  countries  is  freely  employed.  The 
openings  are  square-headed,  and  are  divided  into  separate 

*  For  an   explanation  of  this  term,  see  ante,  Chapter  V.,  page  48. 
G   A  K 


. 

^^^ 

?M 

1^ 

W'ii\  \M 

<'^ 

v 

- 

•= 

f    'hi 

1 

ft   -1 

z. 

1 

Fig.  54.— Ogival  Window- 
head. 


130 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


lights  by  small  columns  ;  the  heads  of  these  lights  are 
ogee-shaped,  and  the  spaces  between  them  and  the  hori- 
zontal lintel  are  filled  in  with  circles,  I'ichly  quatrefoiled 


Fig.  55.— Tracery,  from  Venice. 

or  otherwise  cusped  (Fig.  55).  The  upper  arcade  of  the 
Ducal  Palace  at  Venice  offers  the  best  known  and  finest 
example  of  this  class  of  tracery. 

Roofs  and  Vaults. 

The  vaulting  of  Italian  churches  is  always  simple,  and 
the  bays,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  are  usually  wider  than 
those  of  the  northern  Gothic  churches.  Frequently  there 
are  no  ribs  of  any  sort  to  the  groins  of  the  vaults.  A 
characteristic  feature  of  Italian  Gothic  is  the  central  dome. 
It  is  rarely  very  large  or  overpowering,  and  in  the  one 
instance  of  a  magnificent  dome — the  Cathedral  at  Florence, 
the  feature,  though  intended  from  the  first,  was  added 
after  the  Gothic  period  had  closed.  Still  many  churches 
have  a  modest  dome,  and  it  fi'equently  forms  a  striking 
feature  in  the  interior,  while  in  some  northern  instances  (e.g. 
at  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  or  at  Chiaravalle)  it  is  treated 
like  a  many  storeyed  pyramid   and  becomes  an  external 


SOUTHEBN    EUROPE. ANALYSIS  :    MOULDINGS.  131 

feature  of  importance.  At  Sant'  Antonio  at  Padua  there 
are  five  domes. 

The  churches  of  the  preaching  orders  are  some  of  them 
covered  by  timber  ceilings,  not  peifectly  flat  but  having  an 
outline  made  up  of  hollow  curves  of  rather  flat  sweep. 
The  great  halls  at  Padua  and  Vicenza  displayed  a  vast 
wooden  curved  ceiling  resembling  the  hull  of  a  ship  turned 
upside  down. 

The  ordinary  church  roof  is  of  flat  pitch  and  frequently 
concealed  behind  a  parapet.  Dormer  windows,  ci'estings, 
and  other  similar  features,  by  the  use  of  which  northern 
architects  enriched  their  roofs,  are  hardly  ever  employed  by 
Italian  architects. 

Mouldings  and  Ornaments. 

Ornament  is  almost  instinctively  understood  by  the 
Italians,  and  their  mastery  of  it  is  well  shown  in  their 
architecture.  The  carving  of  spandrels,  capitals,  and  other 
ornaments,  and  the  sculpture  of  the  heads  and  statues  in- 
troduced is  full  of  power  and  beauty.  The  famous  capitals 
of  the  lower  arcade  of  the  Ducal  Palace  may  be  quoted  as 
illustrations. 

The  employment  of  coloured  materials  is  carried  so  far 
as  sometimes  to  startle  an  eye  trained  to  the  sombreness  of 
English  architecture,  but  a  great  deal  of  the  beauty  of  this 
style  is  derived  from  colour,  and  much  of  the  comparative 
simplicity  and  scarcity  of  mouldings  is  due  to  the  desire 
to  leave  large  unbroken  surfaces  for  marble  linings, 
mosaics  or  fresco  painting.  Mouldings,  where  they  are 
introduced,  dilfer  from  northern  mouldings  in  being  flatter 
and  far  less  bold,  their  enrichments  are  chiefly  confined  to 
dentils,  notches,  and  small  and  simple  ornaments.  Stained 
glass   is  not   so    often   seen   as   in   France,   but  is   to  be 

£.  2 


132  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

met  with,  as,  for  example,  in  the  fine  church  of  San 
Petronio  at  Bologna,  and  in  Sta  Maria  Novella,  and  in  the 
Cathedral  at  Florence.  At  Florence  the  stained  glass  has 
a  character  of  its  own  both  in  colour  and  style  of  treat- 
ment. It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  every  kind  of 
decoration  which  can  be  employed  to  add  beauty  to 
a  building  may  be  found  at  its  best  in  Italy.  In  the 
churches  much  of  the  finest  furniture,  such  as  stall- work, 
screens,  altar  frontals,  will  be  found  in  profusion  ;  and  the 
church  porches  and  the  mural  monuments  should  be  especi- 
ally studied  on  account  of  the  singular  elegance  with  which 
they  are  usually  designed. 


Construction  and  Design. 

The  matex'ial  employed  for  the  external  and  internal  face 
of  the  walls  in  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  buildings 
mentioned  in  this  chapter  is  marble.  This  is  sometimes  used 
in  blocks  as  stone  is  with  us,  but  more  frequently  in  the 
form  of  thin  slabs  as  a  facing  upon  masonry  or  brickwork. 
In  Lombardy,  where  brick  is  the  natural  building  material, 
most  of  the  walls  are  not  only  built  but  faced  with  brick ; 
and  the  ornamental  features,  including  tracery,  are  often 
executed  in  ornamental  brickwork,  or  in  what  is  known  as 
terra  cotta  [i.e.  bricks  or  blocks  of  brick  clay  of  fine  quality, 
moulded  or  otherwise  ornamented  and  burnt  like  bricks). 
Stone  was  less  commonly  employed  as  a  building  material  in 
Italy  during  the  Gothic  period,  than  in  other  countries  of 
Europe.  The  surfaces  of  the  vaults,  and  the  surfaces  of  the 
internal  walls  were  often  covered  with  mosaics,  or  with 
paintings  in  fresco.  Vaulting  is  frequently  met  with,  but  it 
is  generally  simple  in  character,  the  flat  external  roof  over  it 
is  commonly  covered  with  tiles  or  metal,  while  the  apparent 


SOUTHERN    EUROPE. — CONSTRUCTION.  133 

gable  frequently  rises  more  sharply  than  the  actual  roof. 
The  Italians  seem  never  to  have  cordially  welcomed  the 
Gothic  principle  of  resisting  the  thrust  of  vaults  or  arches 
by  a  counter-thrust,  or  by  the  weight  of  a  buttress.  The 
buttress  is  almost  unkno^vn  in  Italian  Gothic,  and  as  a  rule 
an  iron  tie  is  introduced  at  the  feet  of  such  arches  as  would 
in  France  or  Germany  have  been  buttressed.  This 
expedient  is,  of  course,  economical,  but  to  northern  eyes  it 
appears  strange  and  out  of  place.  The  Italians,  however, 
take  no  pains  to  conceal  it,  and  many  of  their  lighter  works, 
.such  as  canopies  over  tombs,  porches,  ifec,  would  fall  to 
pieces  at  once  were  the  iron  ties  removed. 

Open  timber  roofs  in  the  English  fashion  are  unknown  ; 
but  the  wooden  ceilings  already  alluded  to  are  found  in 
San  Zeno  at  Yerona,  and  the  Eremitani  at  Padua.  A  kind 
of  open  roof  of  large  span,  carried  by  curved  ribs  and 
tied  by  iron  ties,  covers  the  great  hall  of  the  Basilica  at 
Vicenza,  and  the  very  similar  hall  at  Padua.  The  ribs  of 
these  roofs  are  built  up  of  many  thicknesses  of  material 
bolted  together. 

The  design  of  Italian  Gothic  buildings  presents  many 
peculiarities,  some  of  which  are  due  to  the  materials  made 
use  of.  For  example,  where  brick  and  terra  cotta  are  alone 
employed,  wide  moulded  cornices  of  no  great  projection, 
and  broad  masses  of  enriched  moulding  encircling  arches 
are  easily  executed,  and  they  are  accordingly  constantly  to 
be  found  ;  but  bold  mouldings,  with  deep  hollows,  similar  to 
those  of  Early  English  arches,  could  not  be  constructed  of 
these  materials,  and  are  not  attempted.  These  peculiarities 
will  be  found  in  the  Town  Hall  at  Cremona,  of  which  an 
illustration  (Fig.  50)  has  already  >been  given. 

Where  marble  is  used,  the  peculiar  fineness  of  its 
surface,  upon  which  the  bright  Italian  sun    makes    the 


134 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


smallest  moulding  eifective,  combined  with  the  fact  that 
the  material,  being  costly,  is  often  used  in  thin  slabs,  has 


Fig.  50. — Window  from  Tivoli. 


given  occasion  to  extreme  flatness  of  treatment,  and  to  the 
use  of  modes  of  enrichment  which  do  not  require  much 
depth  of  material.     Our  illustration  of  a  window  from  the 


SOUTHERN    EUROPE. — CONSTRUCTION.  135 

Piazza  S.  Croce  at  Tivoli,  shows  these  peculiarities  ex- 
tremely well  (Fig.  56),  and  also  illustx^ates  the  strong 
predilection  which  the  Italian  architects  retained  through- 
out the  Gothic  period  for  squareness  and  for  horizontal 
lines.  The  whole  ornamental  treatment  is  here  square  ; 
the  window  rests  on  a  strongly-moulded  horizontal  sill,  and 
is  surrounded  by  flatly-carved  enrichment,  making  a 
square  panel  of  the  entire  feature.  Even  in  the  richly- 
decorated  window  (Fig.  57),  which  is  in  its  pointed  outline 
more  truly  Gothic  than  the  Tivoli  example,  much  of  the 
same  quality  can  be  traced.  The  arch  and  jamb  are 
richly  moulded,  but  the  whole  mass  of  mouldings  is  flat, 
and  the  flat  cuspings  of  the  tracery,  elaborately  carved 
though  it  be,  more  resemble  the  cusps  of  early  Western 
Gothic,  executed  at  a  time  when  tracery  was  beginning 
its  career,  than  work  belonging  to  the  period  of  full 
maturity  to  which  this  feature,  as  a  whole,  undoubtedly 
belongs. 

"Where  marbles  were  plentiful  enough  to  be  built  into 
the  fabric,  the  national  love  of  colour  gave  rise  to  the  use 
of  black  and  white — or  sometimes  red  and  white — alternate 
courses,  already  mentioned.  The  effect  of  this  striped 
masonry  may  be  partly  judged  of  from  the  illustration  of 
the  cathedral  at  Siena  (Fig.  5:^),  where  it  is  employed 
to  a  considerable  extent.  A  finer  method  of  surface 
decoration,  less  simple,  however,  and  perhaps  less  fre- 
quently pi'actised,  was  open  to  the  Italian  architect,  in 
the  use  of  panels  of  various  coloured  marbles.  A  beautiful 
example  of  the  employment  of  this  expedient  exists  in 
Giotto's  campanile  at  Florence  (Fig.  51). 

The  flatness  of  the  roofs,  which  the  Italians  never 
abandoned,  was  always  found  diflicult  to  reconcile  with 
the  Gothic  tendency  to  height  and  steepness.     In  many 


136  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

cases,  the  sharp  pitched  gables  which  the  buildings  display, 
are  only  masks,  and  do  not  truly  denote  the  pitch  of  the 
roofs  behind  them.    In  other  instances  the  walls  finish  with 


Fig.  57. — Italian  Gothic  Window,  with  Tracery  in  the  Head. 
(13th  Century.) 

a  horizontal  parapet,  plain  or  ornamental,  quite  concealing 
the  roof.  In  the  roofs  of  their  campaniles,  however,  the 
Gothic  architects  of  Italy  were  usually  happy ;  they 
almost  always  adopted  a  steep  conical  terminal,  with  or 


SPAIN. CHRONOLOGICAL  SKETCH.  137 

without  pinnacles,  which  is  very  telling  against  the  sky ; 
even  if  its  junction  with  the  tower  is  at  times  clumsy. 

The  brightness  of  southern  suns  prevented  the  adoption 
of  the  great  windows,  adapted  to  masses  of  stained  glasp, 
which  were  the  ambition  of  northern  architects  in  the 
fourteenth  century ;  and  the  tenacity  with  which  a  love  for 
squareness  of  effect  and  for  strongly-marked  horizontal 
lines  of  various  sorts  retained  its  hold,  tended  to  keep 
Italian  Gothic  buildings  essentially  different  from  those  of 
northern  nations  ;  but  the  love  of  colour,  the  command  of 
precious  materials,  and  of  fine  sculpture,  the  passion  for 
beauty  and  for  a  decorative  richness,  and  the  artistic  taste 
of  the  Italians,  display  themselves  in  these  buildings  in  a 
hundred  ways  :  all  this  lends  to  them  a  charm  such  as  few 
works  of  the  middle  ages  existing  elsewhere  can  surpass. 

SPAIN — CHRONOLOGICAL  SKETCH. 

An  early,  middle,  and  late  period  can  be  distinguished 
in  dealing  with  Spanish  Gothic.  The  first  period  reaches 
to  the  first  quarter  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  second 
occupies  the  remainder  of  the  thirteenth  and  the  fourteenth 
centuries,  the  third  completes  the  fifteenth  and  runs  on  into 
pait  of  the  sixteenth. 

The  early  style  is  one  of  much  purity  and  dignity,  and  is 
developed  directly  from  the  Romanesque  of  the  country. 
The  cathedral  of  St.  lago  di  Compostella,  a  fine  cruciform 
church  of  round-arched  Gothic,  with  a  magnificent  western 
portal,*  recalling  the  great  lateral  porches  at  Chartres,  is  an 
eai'ly  and  fine  example.  Like  other  churches  of  the  type 
in  Spain,  it  is  far  plainer  inside  than  out,  but  it  is  vaulted 
throughout. 

*  A  cast  of  this  portal  is  at  the  So-ath  Kensiugton  J]  useum. 


138  GOTHIC    AECHITECTURE. 

The  cathedral  of  Zamora,  and  those  of  Tarragona  and 
Salamanca  mtist  also  be  referred  to.  In  each  of  these,  the 
most  thoroughly  Spanish  feature  is  a  dome,  occupying  the 
crossing  of  the  nave  and  transepts,  and  apparently  better 
developed  than  those  in  early  German  churches  or  in 
Italian  ones.  It  is  called  in  Spanish  the  cimborio.  This 
feature  was  constructed  so  as  to  consist  of  an  inner  dome, 
decorated  by  ribs  thrown  over  the  central  space,  and  car- 
ried by  pendentives  ;  having  above  it  a  separate  outer  dome 
somewhat  higher  and  often  richly  decorated.  This  feature 
unfortunately  disappeared  when  the  French  designs  of  the 
thirteenth  century  began  to  be  the  rage.  A  peculiarity  of 
plan,  however,  which  was  retained  throughout  the  whole 
Gothic  period  in  Spain,  is  to  be  found  in  the  early  churches  ; 
it  consists  of  an  inclosure  for  the  choir  quite  in  the  body 
of  the  church,  and  often  west  of  the  transepts, — in  such 
a  position,  in  fact,  as  the  choir  at  Westminster  Abbey 
occupies.  A  third  peculiaiity  is  the  addition  of  an  outer 
aisle,  not  unlike  the  arcade  of  a  cloister,  to  the  side  walls 
of  the  churches,  possibly  with  a  view  of  protecting  them 
from  heat. 

With  the  thirteenth  century  a  strong  passion  for  churches, 
closely  resembling  those  being  erected  in  France  at  the 
same  time,  set  in,  as  has  just  been  remarked.  Accord- 
ingly the  cathedrals  of  Toledo,  Burgos,  and  Leon,  approach 
very  closely  to  French  types.  Toledo  is  very  large,  five 
aisled,  and  with  a  vast  chevet.  Its  exterior  is  unfinished, 
but  the  dignity  of  its  fine  interior  may  be  well  understood 
from  the  illustration  (Fig.  58)  here  given,  Burgos  is  not  so 
ambitious  in  size  as  Toledo,  but  has  a  florid  exterior  of  late 
architecture  with  two  lofty,  open -traceried  spires,  like  Stras- 
burg  and  other  German  examples.  lieon  is  remarkable  for 
its  lofty  clerestory.     Spanish  Gothic  may  be  said  to  have 


Fig.  58.— The  Cathkdeax  at  Toledo.    Interior.    (Begun  1227.) 


140  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

culminated  in  the  vast  cathedral  at  Seville  (begun  1401), 
claiming  to  be  of  greater  extent  than  any  Gothic  cathedral 
in  the  world,  larger,  therefore,  than  Milan  or  Cologne.  It 
stands  on  the  site  of  a  mosque,  and  has  never  been  com- 
pleted externally.  The  interior  is  vei*y  imposing  and  rich, 
but  when  it  is  stated  that  it  was  not  completed  till  1520, 
it  may  be  readily  understood  that  many  of  the  details  are 
very  late,  and  far  from  the  purity  of  earlier  examples. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  an  innovation,  of  which  French 
architects  immediately  north  of  the  Pyrenees  were  also 
availing  themselves,  found  favour  in  Barcelona.  The  great 
buttresses  by  which  the  thrust  of  the  vaults  was  met  were 
brought  inside  the  boundary  walls  of  the  church,  and  were 
made  to  serve  as  division  walls  between  a  series  of  side 
chapels.  Both  here  and  at  Manresa  and  Gerona,  cathedrals 
were  built,  resembling  in  construction  that  at  Alby,  in 
Southern  France ;  in  these  this  arrangement  was  carried  a 
step  further,  and  the  side  aisles  were  suppressed,  leaving 
the  whole  nave  to  consist  of  a  very  bold  vaulted  hall, 
fringed  by  a  series  of  side  chapels,  which  were  separated 
from  each  other  by  the  buttresses  which  supported  the  main 
vault.  These  large  vaults,  however,  when  bare  of  decoration, 
as  most  of  the  Spanish  vaults  are,  appear  bald  and  poor 
in  effect,  though  they  are  grand  objects  structurally. 

The  Gothic  work  of  the  latest  period  in  Spain  became 
extraordinarily  florid  in  its  details,  especially  in  the  variety 
introduced  into  the  ribs  of  the  vaulting  and  the  enrich- 
ments generally.  The  great  cathedrals  of  Segovia  and 
Salamanca  were  neither  of  them  begun  till  the  sixteenth 
century  had  already  well  set  in.  They  are  the  two  pi'incipal 
examples  of  this  florid  Gothic. 

It  will  not  be  forgotten  that  the  country  we  are  now- 
considering  was  fully  occupied  by  the  Moors,  and  that  they 


Fig.  59.— The  Giralda  at  Seville.    (Begun  in  119G.    Finished  ix  1568). 


142  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE, 

left  in  Southern  Spain  buildings  of  great  merit.  A  certain 
number  of  Christian  churches  exist  built  in  a  style  which 
has  been  called  Moresco,  as  being  a  kind  of  fusion  of 
Moorish  and  Gothic.  The  towers  of  these  churches  bear  a 
close  resemblance  to  the  Saracenic  towers  of  which  the 
beautiful  bell-tower,  called  the  Giralda,  at  Seville  (Fig.  59) 
is  the  type  ;  with  this  and  similar  examples  in  the  country 
it  is  not  surprising  that  at  Toledo,  Saragoza,  and  other 
places,  towers  of  the  same  character  should  be  erected 
as  parts  of  churches  in  which  the  architecture  throughout 
is  as  much  Saracenic  as  Christian. 

To  many  of  these  great  churches,  cloisters,  and  monastic 
buildings,  which  are  often  both  extensive  and  of  a  high 
order  of  architectural  excellence,  are  attached.  The  secular 
buildings,  of  Spain  in  the  Gothic  period  are,  on  the  other 
hand,  neither  numerous  nor  remarkable. 

PORTUGAL. 

The  architecture  of  Portugal  has  been  very  little  in- 
vestigated. Ths  great  church  at  Batalha*  is  probably  the 
most  important  in  the  country.  This  building,  though 
interesting  in  plan,  is  more  remarkable  for  a  lavish  amount 
of  florid  ornament,  of  which  our  illustration  (Fig.  60) 
may  furnish  some  idea,  than  for  really  fine  architecture. 
The  conventual  church  at  Belem,  near  Lisbon,  a  work  of 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  equally 
florid,  is  another  of  the  small  number  of  specimens  of 
Portuguese  Gothic  of  which  descriptions  or  illustrations 
have  been  published, 

*  See  Sculptures  of  the  Monastery  at  Batalha,  published  by  the 
.Aruudel  Society. 


flWfifpT^r^'B"^ 


CHAPTER  IX. 


GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    CONSTRUCTION    AND    DESIGN. 


Materials  and  Construction. 

THE  Gothic  architects  adhered,  at  any  rate  till  the 
fifteenth  century,  to  the  use  of  veiy  small  stones  in 
their  masonry.  In  many  buildings  of  large  size  it  is  hard 
to  find  any  stone  heavier  than  two  men  can  lift.  Bad 
roads  and  the  absence  of  good  mechanical  means  of 
hoisting  and  moving  big  blocks  led  to  this. 

The  mortar,  though  good,  is  not  equal  to  the  Roman.  As 
a  rule  in  each  period  mortar  joints  are  thick.  They  are 
finest  in  the  fifteenth   centuiy. 

The  masonry  of  all  important  features  of  the  building 
is  always  good ;  it  is  often  a  perfect  marvel  of  dexterity 
and  skill  as  well  as  of  beauty. 

The  arts  of  workers  in  other  matei'ials,  such  as  carpen- 
ters, joiners,  smiths,  and  plumbers  were  carried  to  great 
perfection  during  the  Gothic  period. 

The  appropriate  ornamental  treatment  which  each  ma- 
terial is  best  fitted  to  receive  was  invariably  given  to  it. 


144  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

and  forms  appropriate  to  one  material  were  very  rarely 
copied  in  others.  For  example,  whenever  wrought  iron,  a 
material  which  can  be  beaten  and  welded,  or  rivetted,  was 
employed,  those  ornamental  forms  were  selected  into  which 
hot  iron  can  with  ease  be  beaten,  and  such  groups  of  those 
forms  were  designed  as  can  be  obtained  by  welding  or  by 
rivetting  them  together. 

Wood,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  be  bent  with  ease,  but 
can  be  readily  cut,  drilled  with  holes,  notched  and  carved  ; 
accordingly,  where  wood  had  to  be  treated  ornamentally, 
we  only  find  such  forms  as  the  drill,  the  chisel,  the  saw,  or 
the  gouge  readily  and  naturally  leave  behind  them. 

Again,  the  mode  into  which  wood  can  be  best  framed 
together  was  carefully  considered  from  a  constructional 
point  of  view,  and  mediteval  joiners'  work  is  always  first  so 
designed  as  to  reduce  the  damage  from  shrinkage  to  the 
smallest  amount  possible ;  and  the  pieces  of  which  it  is 
composed  are  then  appi'opriately  ox-namented,  moulded,  or 
carved. 

Stone  is  now  always,  at  least  in  this  country,  worked  by 
being  first  squared  and  then  worked-down  or  "  sunk " 
from  the  squared  faces  to  the  mouldings  required,  and  this 
procedure  seems  to  have  been  ■.  common,  though  not  quite 
universal,  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Consequently  we  usually  find 
the  whole  of  the  external  mouldings  with  which  the  door- 
ways and  arcades  of  important  buildings  were  enriched, 
designed  so  as  to  be  easily  formed  out  of  stones  having 
squared  faces,  or,  to  use  the  technical  phrase,  to  be  "  sunk  " 
from  the  squared  blocks. 

The  character  of  sculpture  in  wood  differs  from  that  in 
stone,  the  material  being  harder,  more  capable  of  standing 
alone  ;  so  in  stone  we  find  more  breadth,  in  wood  finer  lines 
and  more  elaboi'ation. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    CONSTRUCTION    AND    DESIGN.  145 

In  a  word,  no  material  was  employed  in  simulating 
another  (or  with  the  rarest  exceptions),  and  when  any 
ornament  was  to  be  executed  in  one  place  in  one  material 
and  in  another  place  in  a  different  one,  such  alterations 
were  always  made  in  the  treatment  as  corresponded  to  the 
different  qualities  of  the  two  materials. 

The  arch  was  inti'oduced  whenever  possible,  and  the 
structure  of  a  great  Gothic  building  presents  the  strongest 
possible  contrast  to  that  of  a  Greek  building. 

In  the  Greek  temple  there  was  no  pressure  that  was  not 
vertical  and  met  by  a  vertical  support,  wall,  or  column,  and 
lio  support  that  was  not  vastly  in  excess  of  the  dimensions 
actually  required  to  do  the  work. 

A  great  Gothic  building  attains  stability  through  the 
balanced  counterpoise  of  a  vast  series  of  pressures,  oblique, 
perpendicular,  or  hoi'izontal,  so  arranged  as  to  counteract 
each  other.  The  vault  was  kept  from  spreading  by  the 
flying  buttress,  the  thrust  of  the  arcade  was  resisted  by 
massive  walls,  and  so  on  throughout. 

The  equilibrium  thus  obtained  was  sometimes  so  ticklish 
that  a  storm  of  wind,  a  trifling  settlement,  or  a  slight  con- 
cussion sufficed  to  occasion  a  disaster  ;  and  many  of  the 
daring  feats  of  the  masons  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  lost  to 
us,  because  they  dared  a  little  too  much  and  the  entire 
structure  collapsed.  This  happened  moi-e  often  in  the 
middle  period  of  the  style  than  in  the  earliest,  but  during 
the  whole  Gothic  period  there  is  a  constant  uniform 
tendency  in  one  direction  :  thinner  walls,  wider  arches, 
loftier  vaults,  slenderer  buttresses,  slighter  piers,  confront 
us  at  every  step,  and  we  need  only  compare  some  Normau 
structure  (such  as  Durham),  with  a  perpendicular  (such 
as  Henry  VI  I. 's  Chapel),  to  see  how  vast  a  change  took 
place  in  this  respect. 

G  A  L 


146  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Frmcifles  of  Gothic  Design. 

All  the  germs  of  Gothic  architecture  exist  in  the  Roman- 
esque of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  and  became 
developed  as  the  passion  for  more  slender  proportions, 
greater  lightness,  and  loftiness  of  effect,  and  more  delicate 
enrichment  became  marked.  It  is  quite  true  that  the 
pointed  arch  is  universally  recognised  as,  so  to  speak,  the 
badge  of  Gothic,  even  to  the  extent  of  having  suggested  the 
title  of  Christian  pointed  architecture,  by  which  it  is  often 
called.  But  the  pointed  arch  must  be  regarded  rather  as  a 
token  that  the  series  of  changes,  which,  starting  from  the 
heavy  if  majestic  Romanesque  of  such  a  cathedral  as  Peter- 
boi'ough,  culminated  in  the  gracefulness  of  Salisbury  or 
Lincoln,  was  far  advanced  towards  completion,  than  as  really 
essential  to  their  perfection.  Many  of  the  examples  of 
the  transition  period  exhibit  the  round  arch  blended  with 
the  pointed  {e.g.  the  nave  of  St.  David's  Cathedral  or  the 
Choir  of  Canterbury),  and  when  we  come  to  consider  German 
architecture  we  shall  find  that  the  adoption  of  the  pointed 
arch  was  postponed  till  long  after  the  development  of  all,  or 
almost  all,  the  other  features  of  the  Gothic  style  ;  so  as  to 
place  beyond  question  the  existence,  in  that  country  at 
least,  of  "  round  arched  Gothic."  Some  of  the  best  autho- 
rities have  indeed  proposed  to  employ  this  title  as  a  desig- 
nation for  much,  if  not  all,  the  round  arched  architecture 
of  the  west  of  Europe,  but  Scott,  Sharpe,  and  other 
authorities  class  medi?eval  art  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century  under  the  general  head  of  Romanesque, 
a  course  which  has  been  adopted  in  this  volume. 

The  proportions  of  Gothic  buildings  were  well  studied, 
their  forms  were  always  lofty,  their  gables  sharp,  and  their 
general  composition  more  or  less  pyramidal.     Remarkable 


PRINCIPLES    OF    CONSTRUCTION    AND    DESIGN.  147 

numerical  relations  between  the  dimensions  of  the  different 
parts  of  a  great  Gothic  cathedral  can  be  discovered  upon 
careful  examination  in  most,  if  not  all  instances,  and  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  a  system  of  geometrical  proportions 
ran  through  the  earlier  design,  and  that  much  of  the 
harmony  and  beauty  which  the  buildings  present  is  trace- 
able to  this  fact.  Independent  of  this  the  skill  with  which 
subordinate  features  and  important  ones  are  fitted  to  their 
respective  positions,  both  by  their  dimensions  and  by  their 
I'elative  elaboration  or  plainness,  forms  a  complete  system 
of  proportion,  making  use  of  the  woi-d  in  its  broadest  sense  ; 
and  the  results  are  extremely  happy. 

Apparent  size  was  imparted  to  almost  every  Gothic 
building  by  the  smallness,  great  number,  and  variety  of 
its  features,  and  by  the  small  size  of  the  stones  employed. 
The  effect  of  strength  is  generally,  though  not  perhaps 
so  uniformly,  also  obtained,  and  dignity,  beauty,  and 
harmony  are  rarely  wanting. 

Symmetry,  though  not  altogether  overlooked,  has  but  a 
slender  hold  upon  Gothic  architects.  It  is  far  mere 
observed  in  the  interior  than  in  the  exterior  of  the  build- 
ings ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  symmetry  formed  the 
basis  of  many  designs  which,  owing  to  the  execution  having 
been  carried  on  through  a  long  series  of  years  and  by 
different  hands,  came  to  be  varied  from  the  original  in- 
tentions. Thus,  for  example,  Chartres  is  a  cathedral  with 
two  western  towers.  One  of  these  was  carried  up  and  its 
spire  completed  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  companion 
spix'e  was  not  added  till  the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  when 
men's  ideas  as  to  the  proportions,  shape,  ornaments,  and 
details  of  a  spire  had  altered  entirely  ; — the  later  architect 
did  not  value  symmetry  enough  to  think  himself  bound  to 
adhere  either  to  the  design  or  to  the  height  of  the  earlier 

L  2 


148  GOTHIC   ARCHITECTURE. 

spire,  so  we  have  in  this  great  facade  two  similar  flank- 
ing towers  but  spires  entirely  unlike.  What  happened 
at  Chartres  happened  elsewhere.  The  original  design  of 
buildings  was  in  the  main  symmetrical,  but  it  was  never 
considered  that  symmetry  was  a  matter  so  important  as  to 
require  that  much  sacrifice  should  be  made  to  preserve  it. 

On  the  other  hand  the  subordination  of  a  multitude  of 
small  features  to  one  dominant  one  enters  largely  into  the 
design  of  every  good  Gothic  building;  with  the  result  that 
if  the  great  governing  feature  or  mass  has  been  carried  out 
in  its  entirety,  almost  any  feature,  no  matter  how  irregular 
or  unsymmetrical,  may  be  safely  introduced,  and  will  only 
add  picturesqueness  and  piquancy  to  the  design.  This  is 
more  or  less  a  leading  principle  of  Gothic  des'gn.  A  build- 
ing with  no  irregularities,  none  of  those  charming  additions 
which  add  individual  character  to  Gothic  churches,  and 
none  of  the  isolated  features  which  the  principle  of  sub- 
ordination permits  the  architect  to  employ,  has  missed  one 
of  the  chief  qualities  of  the  style.  It  is  here  that  unskilled 
architects  mostly  fail  when  they  attempt  Gothic  designs  ; 
they  either  hold  on  to  symmetry  as  though  they  were 
designing  a  Greek  temple,  and  they  are  unaware  that  the 
spirit  of  the  style  in  whic-h  they  ai'e  trying  to  work  not 
only  permits,  but  requires  some  irregular  features ;  or  if 
they  do  not  fall  into  this  error  they  are  overtaken  by  the 
opposite  one,  and  omit  to  make  their  irregular  features  sub- 
ordinate to  the  general  effect  of  the  whole,  an  error  less 
serious  in  its  effects  than  the  other,  but  still  destructive  of 
anything  like  the  highest  qualities  in  a  building. 

Repetition,  like  symmetry,  is  recognised  by  Gothic 
architecture,  but  not  adhered  to  in  a  rigid  way.  No 
buildings  gain  more  from  the  repetition  of  parts  than 
Gothic  churches  and  cathedrals ;  the  series  of  pillars   or 


PRINCIPLES    OF    CONSTKUCTION    AND    DESIGN.  149 

piers  and  arches  inside,  the  series  of  buttresses  and 
windows  outside,  add  scale  to  the  general  effect.  But  so 
long  as  it  was  in  the  main  a  series  of  features  which 
broadly  resembled  one  another,  the  Gothic  architect  was 
satisfied,  and  did  not  feel  bound  to  exact  repetition. 

We  are  often,  for  example,  surprised  to  find  in  the 
columns  of  a  church  an  octagonal  one  alternating  with  a 
circular  one,  and  almost  invariably,  if  a  series  of  capitals 
be  examined,  each  will  be  discovered  to  differ  from  the 
othei's  to  some  extent.  In  one  bay  of  a  church  there  may 
be  a  two-light  window,  and  in  the  next  a  thi'ee-light 
window,  and  so  on. 

This  we  find  in  buildings  erected  at  one  time  and  under 
one  architect.  Where,  however,  a  building  begun  at  one 
period  was  continued  at  another  (and  this,  it  must  be 
remembered,  was  the  rule,  not  the  exception,  with  all  larga 
Gothic  buildings),  the  architect,  while  usually  repeating  the 
same  features,  with  the  same  general  forms,  invariably 
followed  his  own  predilections  as  to  detail.  There  is  a 
very  good  example  of  this  in  Westminster  Abbey,  in  the 
western  bays  of  the  nave,  which  were  built  years  later 
than  the  eastern  bays.  They  are,  to  a  superficial  observer, 
identical,  being  of  the  same  height  and  width  and  shape 
of  arch,  but  nearly  eveiy  detail  differs. 

Disclosure,  rather  than  concealment,  was  a  principle  of 
Gothic  design.  This  was  demonstrated  long  ago  by  Pugin, 
and  many  of  his  followers  pushed  the  doctrine  to  such 
extremes,  that  they  held — and  some  of  them  still  hold — 
that  no  building  is  really  Gothic  in  which  any  part,  either 
of  its  construction  or  arrangement,  is  not  obviously  visible 
inside  and  out. 

This  is,  however,  carrying  the  principle  too  far.  It  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  the  interior  disposition  of  every  Gothic 


150  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

building  was  as  much  as  possible  disclosed  by  the  exterior. 
Thus,  in  a  secular  building,  where  there  is  a  large  room, 
there  usiially  was  a  large  window  ;  when  a  lofty  apartment 
occurs,  its  roof  was  generally  proportionately  high ;  where 
a  staircase  rises,  we  usually  can  detect  it  by  a  sloping  row 
of  little  windows  following  the  line  of  the  stair,  or  by  a 
turret  roof. 

The  mode  in  which  the  thrust  of  vaults  is  counterpoised 
is,  as  has  been  shown,  frankly  displayed  by  the  Gothic 
architects,  and  as  a  rule,  every  portion  of  the  structure  is 
freely  exhibited.  It  grows  out  of  this,  that  when  an  orna- 
mental featui'B  is  desired,  it  is  not  constructed  purely  for 
ornament,  as  the  Romans  added  the  columns  and  cornices 
of  the  orders  to  the  outside  of  their  massive  walls  purely 
as  an  architectural  screen  ;  but  some  requisite  of  the  build- 
ing is  taken  and  ornamented,  and  in  some  cases  elaborated. 
Thus  the  belfry  grew  into  the  enormous  bell  tower ;  the 
tower  roof  grew  into  the  spire  ;  the  extra  weight  required 
on  flying  buttresses  grew  into  the  ornamental  pinnacle  ; 
and  the  window  head  gi-ew  into  tracery. 

There  were,  however,  some  exceptions.  The  walls  were 
still  constantly  faced  with  finer  masonry  than  in  the 
heart,  and  though  some  are  unwilling  to  admit  the  fact, 
were  often  plastered  outside  as  well  as  in ;  and  what  is 
more  remarkable,  no  other  sign  of  the  vault  appeared 
outside  the  building  than  the  buttresses  required  to 
sustain  it. 

The  external  gable  conforms  to  the  shape  of  the  roof 
which  covered  the  vault,  but  the  vault,  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  and  characteristic  feature  of  the  whole  build- 
ing, does  not  betray  its  presence  by  any  external  line  or 
-mark  corresponding  to  its  position  and  shape  in  the  interior 
of  the  building.      Notwithstanding  these  and  some  other 


Fig.  go.— Dookway  kkom  Cuiech  at  Batai.ha.     (Begun  13S5.) 


152  GOTHIC    ARCHITECTURE. 

exceptions,  frank  disclosure  must  be  reckoned  one  of  the 
main  principles  of  Gothic  architecture. 

Ekiboration  and  simplicity  were  both  so  well  known  to 
the  Gothic  architect  that  it  is  diflScult  to  say  that  either 
of  these  qualities  belongs  exclusively  to  his  woik.  But 
be  was  rarely  simple  when  he  had  the  opportunity  of 
being  elaborate,  and  simplicity  was  perhaps  rather  forced 
upon  him  by  the  circumstances  under  which  he  worked,  by 
rude  materials,  scant}''  funds,  and  lack  of  skilled  workmen, 
than  freely  chosen.  Many  of  the  great  works  of  the  Gothic 
period  are  as  elaborate  as  they  could  be  made  (Fig-  60), 
and  yet,  when  simplicity  had  to  be  the  order  of  the  day, 
no  architecture  has  lent  it  such  a  grace  as  Gothic, 

The  last  pair  of  qualities  is  similarity  and  contrast. 
What  has  been  said  about  repetition  has  anticipated  the 
remarks  called  for  by  these  qualities,  so  far  as  to  point  out 
that  even  where  the  arrangement  of  the  building  dictated 
the  repetition  of  similar  features,  a  general  resemblance,  and 
not  an  exact  similarity,  was  considered  sufiicient.  In  the 
composition  of  masses  of  building,  contrast  and  not  simi- 
larity was  the  ruling  principle.  Even  in  the  interiors  of 
great  churches  which,  as  a  rule,  are  far  more  regular  than 
the  exteriors,  the  contrast  between  the  comparative  plain- 
ness of  the  nave  and  the  richness  of  the  choir  was  an 
essential  element  of  design. 

External  design  in  Gothic  buildings  depends  almost 
entirely  upon  contrast  for  its  power  of  charming  the 
eye,  and  it  is  this  circumstance  which  has  left  the  suc- 
cessive generations  of  men  who  toiled  at  our  great  Gothic 
cathedrals  so  free  to  follow  the  bent  of  their  own  taste 
in  their  additions,  rather  than  that  of  their  forerunners. 

But  setting  aside  the  irregularities  due  to  the  caprice  of 
various  buildex's,  and  the  constant  changes  which  took  place 


PllINCIPLES    OF    CONSTRUCTION    AND    DESIGN, 


153 


in  detail  through  the  Gothic  period,  it  is  to  contrast  that 
we  must  trace  most  of  the  surprising  effects  attained  by  the 
ai'chitecture  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  rich  tracery  was 
made  richer  by  contrast  with  plain  walls,  the  loftiest  towers 
appeared  higher  from  their  contra&t  with  the  long  level 
lines  of  roofs  and  parapets. 

It  is,  in  truth,  one  of  the  principal  marks  of  the  de- 
cadence which  began  in  the  fifteenth  century  that  the 
principle  of  contrast  was,  to  a  considerable  extent,  aban- 
doned, at  least  in  the  details  of  the  buildings  if  not  in 
their  great  masses.  Walls  were  at  that  time  panelled  in 
imitation  of  the  tracery  of  the  adjoining  windows,  and  no 
longer  acted  as  a  foil  to  them  by  their  solid  plainness ; 
long  rows  of  pinnacles,  all  exactly  alike,  followed  the  line 
of  the  parapets,  and  a  repetition  of  absolutely  identical 
features  became  the  rule  for  the  fii'st  time  in  the  history  of 
Gothic  art. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  had  this  modification  run  its 
natural  course  unchecked  and  undisturbed  by  the  change 
in  taste  which  abruptly  brought  the  Gothic  period  to  a 
close,  it  must  have  resulted  in  the  deterioration  of  the 
art. 


RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 


CHAPTER    X. 


GENERAL    VIEW. 


GOTHIC  architecture  had  begun,  before  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  to  show  marks  of  decadence,  and 
men's  minds  and  tastes  were  ripening  for  a  change.  The 
change,  when  it  did  take  place,  arose  in  Italy,  and  was  a  direct 
consequence  of  that  burst  of  modern  civilisation  known  as 
the  revival  of  letters.  All  the  characteristics  of  the  middle 
ages  were  rapidly  thrown  off.  The  strain  of  old  Roman 
blood  in  the  modern  Italians  asserted  itself,  and  almost  at 
a  bound,  literature  and  the  arts  sprang  back,  like  a  bow 
unstrung,  into  the  forms  they  had  displayed  fifteen  hundred 
years  before. 

It  became  the  rage  to  read  the  choice  Greek  and  Latin 
authors,  ond  to  write  Latin  with  a  pedantic  purity.  Can 
we  wonder  that  in  painting,  in  sculpture,  and  in  architec- 
ture, men  reverted  to  the  form,  the  style,  and  the  decora- 
tions of  the  antique  compositions,  statues,  and  architec- 
tural   remains  ?      This   was   the   more  easy  in  Italy,    as 


GENERAL    VIEW.  155 

Gothic  art  had  never  at  any  time  taken   so  fii'm   a  hold 
upon  Italians  as  it  had  upon  nations  north  of  the  Alps. 

Though,  however,  the  details  and  forms  employed  were 
all  Roman,  or  Gra'co  Roman,  they  were  applied  to  build- 
ings essentially  modern,  and  used  with  much  freedom 
and  spirit.  This  revival  of  classic  taste  in  art  is  com- 
monly and  appropriately  called  Renaissance.  In  Italy  it 
took  place  so  rapidly  that  there  was  hardly  any  transition 
period.  Brunelleschi,  the  first  great  Renaissance  architect, 
began  his  work  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  his  buildings,  in  which  classic  details  of  great 
severity  and  purity  are  employed,  struck,  so  to  speak,  a 
key-note  which  had  been  responded  to  all  over  Italy  before 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

To  other  countries  the  change  spread  later,  and  it  found 
them  less  prepared  to  welcome  it  unreservedly.  Accordingly, 
in  France,  in  England,  and  in  many  parts  of  Germany,  we 
find  a  transition  period,  during  which  buildings  were  de- 
signed in  a  mixed  style.  In  England,  the  transition  lasted 
almost  through  the  sixteenth  century. 

As  the  century  went  on,  a  most  picturesque  and  telling 
style,  the  earlier  phases  of  which  are  known  as  Tudor 
and  the  later  as  Elizabethan,  sprang  up  in  England.  It 
betrays  in  its  mixture  of  Gothic  and  classic  forms  great 
incongruities  and  even  monstrosities  ;  but  it  allows  un- 
restrained play  for  the  fancies,  and  the  best  mansions 
and  manors  of  the  time,  such  as  Hatfield,  Hardwick, 
Burleigh,  Bi-amshill,  and  Audley  End,  are  unsurpassed  in 
their  picturesqueness  and  romantic  charm. 

The  old  red-brick,  heavily  chimneyed,  and  gabled  build- 
ings, with  their  large  windows  divided  by  bold  mullions 
and  transoms,  and  their  simple  noble  outlines,  are  familiar 
to  us  all,  and  so  ai'e  their  characteristic    featm-es.     The 


156  RENAISSANCE    AECHITECTUEE. 

great  hall  with  its  oriel  or  its  bay,  the  fine  plastered  ceil- 
ing, supported  by  heavy  beams  of  timber ;  the  wide  oak 
staircase,  with  its  carved  balusters,  and  ornamented  newel 
post,  and  heavy-moulded  handrail ;  the  old  wainscoted 
parlour,  with  its  magnificent  chimney-piece  reaching  to 
the  ceiling  ;  these  are  all  essentially  English  features, 
and  are  full  of  vigour  and  life,  as  indeed  the  work  of 
every  period  of  transition  must  almost  necessarily  prove. 

The  transitional  period  in  France  produced  exquisite 
works  more  refined  and  elegantly  treated  than  ours,  but  not 
so  vigorous.  Its  manner  is  known  as  the  Francois  Premier 
(Francis  I.)  style.  No  modern  buildings  are  more  pro- 
fusely ornamented,  and  yet  not  spoilt. 

In  Germany,  the  Castle  of  Heidelberg  may  be  named 
as  a  well-known  specimen  of  the  transition  period,  a  period 
over  which  however  we  must  not  linger.  Suffice  it  to  say, 
that  sooner  or  later  the  change  was  fully  accomplished  in 
every  European  country,  and  Renaissance  architecture, 
modified  as  climate,  materials,  habits,  or  even  caprice  sug- 
gested, yet  the  same  in  its  essential  characteristics,  obtained 
a  firm  footing  :  this  it  has  succeeded  in  retaining,  though 
not  to  the  exclusion  of  other  styles,  for  now  nearly  three 
centuries. 

In  Italy,  Renaissance  churches,  great  and  small — from 
St.  Peter's  downwards — and  magnificent  secular  buildings, 
some,  like  the  Vatican  Palace  or  the  Library  of  St.  Mark 
at  Venice,  for  public  purposes,  but  most  for  the  occupation 
of  the  great  wealthy  and  princely  families,  abound  in 
Naples,  Rome,  Florence,  Genoa,  Venice,  Milan,  and  indeed 
every  great  city. 

In  France,  the  transition  period  was  succeeded  by  a 
time  when  vast  undertakings,  e.g.  the  Hotel  de  Ville, 
the   Louvre,    the  Tuileries,  Versailles,   were    caii-ied   out 


ANALYSIS    OF    BUILDING.  157 

in  the  revived  style  with  the  utmost  magnificence,  and 
were  imitated  in  every  part  of  the  country  in  the  structures 
gi'eater  or  smaller  which  were  then  built. 

In  England,  the  works  of  Inigo  Jones,  and  of  Wren,  are 
the  most  famous  works  of  the  developed  style,  and  to  the 
last-named  architect  we  owe  a  cathedral  second  to  none  in 
Europe  for  its  beauty  of  outline,  and  play  of  light  and 
shade.  To  Germany,  and  the  countries  of  the  north-east 
Europe,  and  to  Spain  and  Portugal  on  the  south,  the  style 
also  extended  with  no  very  great  modification,  either  of  its 
general  forms  or  of  its  details. 

ANALYSIS    OF    BUILDINGS. 

rian. 

The  plan  of  Renaissance  buildings  was  uniform  and 
symmetrical,  and  the  picturesqueness  of  the  Gothic  times 
was  abandoned.  The  plans  of  churches  were  not  widely- 
different  from  those  in  use  in  Italy  before  the  revival  of 
classic  art  took  place,  but  it  will  be  remembered  that  the>e 
were  by  no  means  so  irregular  or  picturesque  at  any  time 
as  the  plans  of  French  and  English  cathedral  churches. 

In  secular  architecture,  the  vast  piles  erected  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  by  Italian,  French,  and 
Spanish  architects  are  to  the  last  degree  orderly  in  their 
disposition.  They  are  adapted  to  a  great  variety  of  pur- 
poses, and  they  display  a  varying  degree  of  skill.  The 
palaces  of  Genoa  are,  on  the  one  hand,  among  the  cleverest 
examples  of  planning  existing ;  on  the  other  hand,  many 
of  the  palaces  in  Fi-ance  are  weak  and  poor  to  the  last  degree. 
As  a  rule  the  scale  of  the  plan  is  more  considerable  than  in 
Gothic  work.  A  very  large  building  is  often  not  divided 
into  moie  parts  than  a  small  one,  or  one  of  moderate  size. 


158  RENATSSAXCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

In  St.  Peter's,  for  example,  there  ai'e  only  four  bays  between 
the  west  front  and  the  dome,  everything  being  on  a  most 
gigantic  scale.  As  a  contrast  to  this  principle  we  may  cite 
the  nave  of  the  Gothic  cathedral  at  Milan,  which  is  not  so 
long  at  St.  Peter's,  but  has  at  least  thrice  as  many  bays,  and 
looks  much  larger  in  consequence. 

No  style  affords  more  room  for  skill  in  planning  than  the 
Renaissance,  and  in  no  style  is  the  exercise  of  such  skill 
more  repaid  by  results. 

Walls  and  Columns. 

In  the  treatment  of  external  walls,  the  media?val  use 
of  small  materials,  involving  many  joints  for  the  exterior 
of  walls  has  quite  disappeared,  and  they  are  universally 
faced  with  stone  or  plaster,  and  are  consequently  uniformly 
smooth.  Peihaps  the  principal  feature  to  note  is  the  very 
great  ute  made  of  that  elaborate  sort  of  masonry  in  which 
the  joints  of  the  stones  are  very  carefully  channelled  or 
otherwise  marked,  and  which  is  known  by  the  singularly 
inappropriate  name  of  lustic  work.  The  basements  of 
most  Italian  and  French  palaces  are  rusticated,  and  in 
many  cases  (as  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence)  rustic  work 
covers  an  entire  facade. 

The  Gothic  mouldings  in  receding  planes  disappear 
entirely,  and  the  classic  architrave  takes  their  place.  The 
orders  are  again  revived  and  are  used  (as  the  Romans  often 
used  them)  as  purely  decorative  features  added  for  the  mere 
sake  of  ornament  to  a  wall  sufficient  without  them,  and  are 
freely  piled  one  upon  the  other.  Palladio  (a  very  influen- 
tial Italian  architect)  reproduced  the  use  of  lofty  pilasters 
running  through  two  or  even  more  storeys  of  the  building, 
and  often   combined   one  tall  order  and  two  short  ones 


ANALYSIS  :    WALLS    AND    COLUMNS.  159 

in  his  treatment  of  the  same  part  of  building,  a  contriv- 
ance which  in  less  clever  hands  than  his  has  given  rise  to 
the  greatest  confusion. 

The  Eenaissance  architects  also  revived  the  late 
Roman  manner  of  employing  the  column  and  entablature. 
They  frequently  carried  on  the  top  of  a  column  a  little 
square  pier  divided  up  as  the  architrave  and  frieze  proper 
to  the  column  would  be  divided,  and  they  surmounted  it 
with  a  cornice  which  was  carried  quite  round  this  pier,  and 
from  this  curious  compound  pedestal  an  arch  will  frequently 
spring.  The  classic  portico,  with  pediments,  was  constantly 
employed  by  them ;  and  small  pediments  ovtr  window  heads 
were  common.  A  peculiarity  worth  mention  is  the 
introduction  in  many  Italian  palaces  of  a  great  crowning 
cornice,  proportioned  not  to  the  size  of  the  columns  and  of 
the  order  upon  which  it  rests  (if  an  order  be  employed), 
but  to  the  height  of  the  whole  building.  Much  fine 
effect  is  obtained  by  means  of  this  feature ;  it  is,  however, 
better  fitted  for  sunny  Italy  than  for  gloomy  England,  and 
it  is  not  an  unmixed  success  when  repeated  in  our  climate. 

Towers  are  less  frequently  employed  than  by  the  Gothic 
architects,  and  indeed  in  Italy  the  sky-line  was  less  thought 
of  at  this  period  than  it  was  in  the  middle  ages.  In 
churches,  towers  sometimes  occur,  nowhere  more  picturesque 
than  those  designed  by  Sir  Christo2:)her  Wren  for  many  of 
his  London  parish  churches.  The  frequent  use  of  the  dome 
takes  the  place  of  the  tower  both  in  churches  and  secular 
buildings. 

Openings. 

Openings  are  both  flat- headed  and  semi-circular,  occa- 
sionally elliptical,  but  hardly  ever  pointed.  Renaissance 
buildings  may  be  to  some  extent  divided  into  those  which 


160  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

depend  for  effect  upon  window  openings,  and  those  which 
depend  chiefly  upon  architectural  features  such  as  cornices, 
pilasters,  and  orders.  Among  the  buildings  where  fenes- 
tration (or  the  treatment  of  windows)  is  relied  upon  the 
palaces  of  Venice  stand  pre-eminent  as  compositions 
admirably  designed  for  effect  and  very  successful.  In  them 
the  openings  are  massed  near  the  centre  of  the  facade,  and 
strong  piers  are  left  near  the  angles,  a  simple  expedient 
when  once  known,  and  one  inherited  from  the  Gothic 
palaces  in  that  cityj  but  giving  remarkable  individuality 
of  character  to  this  group  of  buildings. 

In  roofs,  including  vaults  and  domes,  we  meet  with  a 
divergence  of  practice  between  Italy  and  France.  In 
Italy  low-pitched  roofs  were  the  rule  :  the  parapet  alone 
often  formed  the  sky-line,  and  the  dome  and  pediment 
are  usually  the  only  telling  features  of  the  outline. 
France,  on  the  other  hand,  revived  a  most  picturesque 
feature  of  Gothic  days,  namely,  the  high-pitched  roof,  em- 
ploying it  in  the  shape  commonly  known  as  the  Mansard  * 
roof.  Nothing  adds  more  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  great 
French  Renaissance  buildings  than  these  lofty  terminals. 

The  dome  is,  however,  the  glory  of  this  stylOy  as  it  had 
been  of  the  Roman.  It  is  the  one  feature  by  which  revived 
and  original  classic  architects  retain  a  clear  and  defined 
advantage  over  Gothic  architects,  who,  strange  to  say,  all 
but  abandoned  the  dome.  The  mouldings  and  other 
oi'naments  of  the  Renaissance  are  much  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Pv,oman  style,  which  the  Italians  revived ;  their 
sculptures  and  their  mui'al  decorations  were  all  originally 
drawn  from  classic  sources.  These,  however,  attained 
very  great  excellence,  and  it  is  probable  that  such  deco- 
rative paintings  as  Raphael  and  his  scholars  executed  in 
*  Kamed  after  a  French  architect  of  the  17th  century. 


ANALYSIS  :    CONSTRUCTION.  161 

Kome,  at  Genoa,  at  Mantua,  and  elsewhere,  far  surpass 
anything  which  the  old  lloman  decorative  artists  ever 
executed. 

Construction  and  Design. 

The  earlier  Renaissance  buildings  are  remarkable  for 
the  great  use  which  their  architects  made  of  carpentry, 
as  the  most  modern  structures  are  for  the  use  of  wrought 
and  cast-iron  construction.  As  regards  carjientry,  it  is  of 
course  true  that  all  the  w^ood-woik  of  the  classic  periods, 
and  much  of  that  done  in  the  Gothic  period,  has  perished, 
either  through  decay  or  fire ;  but  making  every  allowance 
for  this,  we  must  still  recognise  a  very  great  increase  in  the 
employment  of  timber  as  an  integral  part  of  large  struc- 
tures. Vaulted  roofs  for  example  are  comparatively  rare, 
and  domes,  even  when  the  inner  dome  is  of  brick-work 
or  masonry,  have  their  outer  envelope  of  carpentry.  A 
disuse  of  brick  and  rough  masonry,  or  rather  a  constant 
effort  to  conceal  them  from  view,  is  a  distinctive  mark  of 
Renaissiince  work.  The  Roman  method  of  facing  rough 
walls  with  fine  stone  was  resorted  to  in  the  best  buildings. 
In  humbler  buildings  plaster  is  employed. 

Renaissance  architects  made  very  free  use  of  plaster. 
Inside  and  out  this  material  is  utilised,  not  merely  to 
cover  surfaces,  but  to  form  architectural  features.  Cor- 
nices, panels,  and  enrichments  of  all  kinds  modelled  in 
plaster  are  constantly  employed  in  the  interior  of  rooms 
and  buildings.  On  the  exterior  we  constantly  find  imi- 
tations of  similar  architectural  features  proper  to  stone 
executed  in  plaster  and  simulating  stone  ;  a  short-sighted 
practice  which  cannot  be  commended,  and  which  has  only 
cheapness  and  convenience  in  its  favour.  There  can  be 
no  question  of  the  fact  that  the  features  thus  executed 

G   A  M 


162  REXAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

nevei*  equal  those  done  in  stone  in  their  effectiveness,  and 
are  far  more  liable  to  decay. 

Design  in  Renaissance  buildings  may  be  said  to  be 
directed  towards  producing  a  telling  result  by  the  effect  of 
the  buildings  taken  as  a  whole,  rather  than  by  the  intricacy 
or  the  beauty  of  individual  parts  ;  and  herein  lies  one  of  the 
great  contrasts  between  Renaissance  and  Gothic  architec- 
ture. A  Renaissance  building  which  fails  to  produce  an 
impression  as  a  whole  is  i-arely  felt  to  be  successful.  No 
better  example  of  this  can  be  given  than  the  straggling, 
unsatisfactory  Palace  of  Versailles,  magnificent  as  it  is  in 
dimensions  and  rich  in  treatment.  To  the  pi'oduction  of  a 
homogeneous  impression  the  arrangement  of  plan,  the  propor- 
tion of  storeys,  the  contrasts  of  voids  and  solids,  and  above 
all  the  outline  of  the  entire  building,  should  be  devoted. 

The  general  arrangement  of  buildings  is  usually  strictly 
symmetrical,  one  half  corresponding  to  the  other,  and  with 
some  well  defined  feature  to  mark  the  centre.  Of  course 
in  very  h\rge  buildings  this  does  not  occur,  nor  in  the 
nature  of  things  can  it  often  take  place  in  the  sides  of 
churches  ;  but  the  individual  features  of  such  buildings, 
and  all  those  parts  of  them  which  permit  of  symmetry  in 
their  arrangement,  always  display  it. 

Proportion  plays  an  important  part  in  the  design  of 
Renaissance  buildings.  The  actual  shape  of  openings,  the 
proportion  which  they  bear  to  voids,  the  proportion  of 
stoi'eys  to  one  another  ;  and,  going  into  details,  the  pro- 
portions which  the  different  features — e.g.,  cornice,  and 
the  columns  supporting  it — should  bear  to  one  another, 
have  to  be  carefully  studied.  It  is  to  the  possession  of 
a  keen  sense  of  what  makes  a  pleasing  proportion  and 
one  satisfactory  to  the  eye,  that  the  great  architects 
of  Italy  owed  the  greater  part  of  their  success. 


ANALYSIS  :    CONSTRUCTION.  163 

Renaissance  architecture  is  so  familiar  in  its  general 
features,  and  these  ha,ve  been  so  constantly  repeated,  that 
we  may  not  easily  recognise  the  great  need  for  skill  and 
taste  which  exists  if  they  are  to  be  designed  so  as  to  pro- 
duce the  most  refined  effect  possible.  Many  of  the  successful 
buildings  of  the  style  owe  their  excellence  to  the  great  deli- 
cacy and  elegance  of  the  mode  in  which  the  details  have  been 
studied,  leather  than  to  the  vigour  and  boldness  with  which 
the  masses  have  been  shaped  and  disposed  ;  and  though  gran- 
deur is  the  noblest  quality  of  which  the  style  is  capable, 
yet  many  more  opportunities  for  displaying  grace  and 
refinement  than  for  attaining  grandeur  offer  themselves, 
and  by  nothing  are  the  best  works  of  the  style  so  well 
marked  out  as  by  the  success  with  which  those  oppor- 
tunities have  been  grasped  and  turned  to  account. 

The  concealment  both  of  construction  and  arrangement 
is  largely  practised  in  Renaissance  buildings.  Behind  an 
exterior  wall  filled  by  windows  of  uniform  size  and  equally 
spaced,  rooms  large  and  small,  corridors,  staircases,  and  other 
features  have  to  be  provided  for.  This  is  completely  in  con- 
trast to  the  Gothic  principle  of  displaying  frankly  on  the 
outside  the  arrangement  of  what  is  within ;  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  art  often  works  most  happily  and  suc- 
cessfully when  limited  by  apparently  strict  and  difficult 
conditions,  and  these  rules  have  not  prevented  the  great 
architects  of  the  Renaissance  from  accomplishing  works 
where  both  the  exterior  and  the  interior  are  thoroughly 
successful,  and  are  brought  into  such  happy  harmony 
that  the  difficulties  have  clearly  been  no  bar  to  success. 
There  is  no  canon  of  art  violated  by  such  a  method,  the 
simple  fact  being  that  Gothic  buildings  are  designed 
under  one  stt  of  conditions  and  Renaissance  under  another. 

It  is  less  easy  to  defend  the  use  of  pilasters  and  columns 

M  2 


16-1:  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITFX'TURE. 

large  enough  to  appear  as  though  they  were  the  main 
support  of  the  building,  for  purely  decorative  purposes  ; 
yet  here  perhaps  the  fault  lies  rather  in  the  extent  to 
which  the  practice  has  been  carried,  and  above  all  the 
scale  upon  which  it  is  carried  out,  than  in  anything  else. 
Small  columns  are  constantly  employed  in  Gothic  buildings 
in  positions  where  they  serve  the  jesthetic  purpose  of  con- 
veying a  sense  of  support,  but  where  it  is  impossible  for 
them  to  carry  any  weight.  The  Renaissance  architects 
have  done  the  same  thing  on  a  large  scale,  but  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  they  only  revived  a  Roman  practice  as 
part  of  the  ancient  style  to  which  they  reverted,  and  that 
they  are  not  responsible  for  originating  it. 

It  will  be  understood  therefore  that  symmetry,  strict 
uniformity,  not  mere  similarity,  in  features  intended  to 
correspond,  and  constant  repetition,  are  leading  principles 
in  Renaissance  architecture.  These  qualities  tend  to  bieadth 
rather  than  picturesqueness  of  effect,  and  to  similai-ity 
rather  than  contrast.  Simplicity  and  elaboration  are  both 
compatible  with  Renaissance  design  ;  the  former  distin- 
guishes the  earlier  and  purer  examples  of  the  style,  the 
latter  those  more  recent  and  more  grandiose. 

It  i-hould  be  observed  that  in  the  transition  styles,  such 
as  our  own  Elizabethan,  or  the  French  style  of  Francis  the 
First,  these  principles  of  design  are  mixed  up  in  a  very 
miscellaneous  way  with  those  followed  in  the  Gothic 
period.  The  lesult  is  often  puzzling  and  inconsistent  if 
we  attempt  to  analyse  it  with  exactness,  but  rarely  fails 
to  charm  by  its  picturesque  and  irregular  vividness. 


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CHAPTER  Xr. 

RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE    IN    ITALY. 

RENAISSANCE  architecture— the  architecture  of  the 
^  classic  revival — had  its  origin  in  Italy,  and  should 
be  first  studied  in  the  land  of  its  birth.  There  are 
more  ways  than  one  in  which  it  may  be  attempted  to 
classify  Italian  Renaissance  buildings.  The  names  of 
conspicuous  architects  aie  sometimes  adopted  for  this 
purpose,  for  now,  for  the  first  time,  we  meet  with  a 
complete  record  of  the  names  and  performances  of  all 
architects  of  note  :  the  men  who  raised  the  great  works 
of  Gothic  art  are,  with  a  fesv  exceptions,  absolutely  un- 
known to  us.  An  approximate  division  into  three  stages 
can  also  be  recognised.  There  is  an  early,  a  developed, 
and  a  late  Renaissance,  but  this  is  very  far  indeed  from 
being  a  completely  marked  series,  and  was  more  interfered 
with  by  local  circumstances  and  by  the  character  and 
genius  of  individual  artists  than  in  Gothic.  For  this 
reason  a  local  division  will  be  of  most  service.  The  best 
examples  exist  in  the  great  cities,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
and  it  is  almost  more  useful  to  group  them — as  the  paint- 
ings of  the  Renaissance  are  also  often  grouped — by  locality 
than  in  either  of  the  other  methods. 


166  RENAISSANCE    ABCHITECTURE. 


FLORENCE. 


Renaissance  architecture  first  sprang  into  existence  in 
Florence.  Here  chiefly  the  works  of  the  early  Renaissance 
are  met  with,  and  the  names  of  the  gi'eat  Florentine 
architects  are  Brunelleschi  and  Alberti. 

Brunelleschi  was  a  citizen  of  Florence,  of  very  ardent 
temperament  and  great  energy,  and  a  true  artist.  He  was 
born  in  1377.  was  originally  trained  as  a  goldsmith  and 
sculptor,  but  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  architecture, 
and  early  set  his  heart  upon  being  appointed  to  complete 
the  dome  of  the  Ihen  unfinished  cathedral  of  Florence,  of 
which  some  account  has  already  been  given. 

Florence  in  the  fifteenth  century  was  full  of  artistic 
life,  and  the  revival  of  learning  and  arts  had  then  begun 
to  take  definite  shape.  The  first  years  of  the  century 
found  Bi-unelle!=chi  studying  antiquities  at  Rome,  to  fit 
himself  for  the  work  he  desired  to  undertake.  After  his 
return  to  his  native  city,  he  ultimately  succeeded  in  the 
object  of  his  ambition  ;  the  cathedral  was  entrusted  to  him, 
and  he  erected  the  lai^ge  pointed  dome  with  which  it  is 
crowned.  He  also  erected  two  large  churches  in  Florence, 
which,  as  probably  the  first  important  buildings  designed 
and  built  in  the  new  style,  possess  great  interest.  Santo 
Spirito,  one  of  these,  shows  a  fully  matured  system  of 
architectural  treatment,  and  though  it  is  quite  true  that  it 
was  a  revived  system,  yet  the  application  of  it  to  a  modern 
building,  different  in  its  purpose  and  in  its  design  from 
anything  the  Romans  had  ever  done,  is  little  short  of  a 
work  of  genius. 

Santo  Spirito  has  a  very  simple  and  beautifully  regular 
plan,  and  its  interior  has  a  singular  charm  and  grace  :  over 


FLORENCE.  167 

the  crossing  is  raised  a  low  dome.  The  columns  of  the 
arcade  are  Corinthian  columns,  and  the  refinement  of  their 
detail  and  proportions  strikes  the  eye  at  once  on  entering 
the  building.  The  influence  of  Brunelleschi,  who  died  in 
1440,  was  perpetuated  by  the  works  and  writings  of 
Alberti  (born  1.398)  an  architect  of  literary  cultivation 
who  "wrote  a  systematic  treatise  which  became  extremely 
popular,  and  helped  to  form  the  taste  and  guide  the  practice 
of  his  contemporaries.  He  lived  till  near  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  erected  some  buildings  of  great 
merit.  To  Alberti  we  owe  the  design  of  the  Ruccellai 
Palace  in  Florence,  a  building  b?gun  in  1460,  and  which 
had  been  preceded  by  somewhat  bolder  and  simpler 
designs.  This  is  a  three  storey  building,  but  has  pilasters 
carried  up  the  piers  between  the  windows  and  a  regular 
entablature  and  cornice*  at  each  storey.  The  building  is 
elegant  and  graceful,  and  though  the  employment  of  the 
orders  t  as  its  decoration  gives  it  a  distinctive  character,  it 
bears  a  strong  general  resemblance  to  the  group  of  which 
the  Strozzi  Palace  (Fig.  61)   may  be  taken  as  the  type. 

The  earliest  Florentine  palaces  are  the  Eiccardi,  which 
dates  from  1430,  and  the  Pitti  of  almost  the  same  date; 
Brunelleschi  is  said  to  have  been  consulted  in  the  design  of 
both,  but  Michelozzo  was  the  architect.  The  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  the  early  palaces  in  this  city  is  solidity, 
which  rises  from  the  fact  that  they  were  also  fortresses. 

*  An  entablature  is  the  superstructure  which  ordinarily  is  carried 
by  a  column,  and  which  it  is  usual  to  divide  into  architrave  (or  beam), 
frieze,  and  cornice. 

f  An  order  consists  of  a  column  (or  pilaster)  with  its  distinctive 
base  and  capital,  its  entablature,  and  the  appropriate  decorations. 
There  are  five  orders,  differing  in  proportions,  in  the  degree  of  enrich- 
ment required,  and  in  the  design  of  the  base  and  capital  of  the 
column  or  pilaster,  and  of  the  entablature. 


168  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

The  Pitti,  well  known  for  its  picture  gallery,  is  a  building 
of  vast  extent,  built  throughout  in  very  boldly  rusticated 
masonry,   the    joints  and    projections  of  the  stones  being 
greatly   exaggerated.      The    Riccardi,    a   square    block   of 
building,  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  Strozzi, 
but  is  plainer.     It  is  a  most  dignified  building  in  its  effect. 
The     Strozzi    Palace     (Fig.    61)    was    the    next    great 
palatial  pile  erected.     It   was   designed   by  Cronaca,  and 
begun  in  1498.     Like  the  Riccardi,  it  is  of  thiee  storeys, 
with  a  bold  projecting  cornice.     The  whole  wall  is  covered 
with  rusticated  masonry  ;  the  windows  of  the  lower  floor 
are  small  and  square  ;  those  of  the  two  upper  floors  are 
larger   and   semicircular  headed,  and  with  a  shaft  acting 
as  a  mullion,  and  carrying  arches  which  occupy  the  window 
head  with  something  like  tracery.     The  entrance  is  by  a 
semicircular  headed  archway.     There  is  a  great  height  of 
un pierced  wall  in  the  lowest  storey  and  above  the  heads  of 
the  two  upper  ranges   of  windows ;  and  to  this  and  the 
bold  overhanging  cornice,  this  building,  and  those  like  it, 
owe  much  of  their  dignity  and  impressiveness.     An  eleva- 
tion, such  as  our  illustration,  may  convey  a  fair  idea  of  the 
good  proportion  and  ensemble  of  the  front,  but  it  is  difficult 
without  actually  seeing  the    buildings  to   appreciate  the 
effect  produced  by  such  palaces  as  these,  seen  foreshortened 
in  the  narrow  streets,  and  with  the  shadows  from  their 
bold  cornices  and  well-defined  openings  intensified  by  the 
effect  of  the  Italian  sun. 

Many  excellent  palatial  buildings  belong  to  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  One  among  them  is  attributed  to 
Bramante  (who  died  1513),  a  Florentine,  whom  we  shall 
meet  with  in  Rome  and  elsewhere.  The  Guadagni  Palace 
has  an  upper  storey  entirely  open,  forming  a  sheltered 
loggia,  but  it  is  mentioned  here  chiefly  on  account  of  the 


170  RENATSSANCS    ARCHITECTURE. 

decorations  incised  on  its  walls  by  the  method  known  as 
Sgraffito.  Part  of  the  plain  wall  is  covered  in  this  way 
with  decorative  designs,  which  appear  as  though  drawn 
with  a  bold  line  on  their  surface.  An  example  of  this 
decoration  will  be  found  in  our  illustration  (Fig.  62), 
representing  a  portion  of  the  Loggia  del  Consiglio 
at  Verona. 

The  series  of  great  Florentine  palaces  closes  with  a 
charming  example,  the  Pandolfini,  designed  by  th:;  great 
Raphael,  and  commenced  in  1520— in  other  words,  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

This  palace  is  only  one  of  many  instances  to  be  found  in 
Italy  of  the  skill  in  more  walks  of  art  than  one,  of  some  of 
the  greatest  artists.  Raphael,  though  best  known  as  a 
painter,  executed  works  of  sculpture  of  great  merit,  and 
designed  some  other  buildings  besides  the  one  now  under 
notice.  The  Pandolfini  Palace  (Fig.  63)  is  small,  the  main 
building  having  only  four  windows  in  the  front  and  two 
storeys  in  height,  with  a  low  one-storey  side  building. 
Its  general  design  has  been  very  successfully  copied  in  the 
Travellers'  Club  House,  Pall  Mall.  On  comparing  this 
with  any  of  the  previously  named  designs,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  semicircular  headed  windows  have  disappeared, 
the  rusticated  masonry  is  only  now  retained  at  the  angles, 
and  to  emphasise  the  side  entrance ;  and  a  small  order 
with  a  little  pediment  {i.e.  gable)  is  employed  to  mark 
e\ch  opening,  door  or  window.  In  short  this  building 
belongs  not  only  to  another  century,  but  to  that  advanced 
school  of  art  to  which  we  have  given  the  name  of  developed 
Italian  Renaissance. 

In  Florence  some  of  the  work  of  Michelangelo  is  to  be 
met  with.  His  own  house  is  here  ;  so  is  the  famous  Medici 
chapel,  a  work  in  which  we  find  him  displaying  power  at 


Fig.  62. — Part  of  the  Loggia  del  Coxsiglio  at  Verona.    (16th  Cexttet.) 
Showing  the  incised  decoration  known  as  Sgraffito. 


172  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

once  as  a  sculptor  and  an  architect.  This  interior  is  very 
fine  and  very  studied  both  in  its  proportions  and  its  details. 
The  church  of  the  Annunziata,  lemarkable  for  a  fine  dome, 
carried  on  a  drum  resting  directly  on  the  ground,  is  the 
foremost  Renais.'-ance  church  in  Florence. 

The  contrast  between  early  and  matured  Eenaissance 
can  indeed  be  better  recognised  in  Florence  than  in  almost 
any  other  city.  The  early  work,  that  of  Bramante,  Bru- 
nelleschi,  and  the  architects  who  drew  their  inspirations 
from  these  masters,  was  delicate  and  refined.  Tha  detail 
was  always  elegant,  the  ornament  always  unobtrusive,  and 
often  most  graceful.  Features  comparatively  small  in 
scale  were  employed,  and  were  set  off  by  the  use  of  plain 
wall-surface,  which  was  unhesitatingly  displayed.  The 
classic  orders  were  used  in  a  restricted,  unobtrusive  way, 
and  with  pilasters  in  preference  to  columns  ;  and  though 
probably  the  architects  themselves  would  have  i*epudiated 
the  idea  that  the  Gothic  art,  which  they  had  cast  behind 
them,  influenced  their  practice  of  revived  classic  in  the 
remotest  degree,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  many  of  thes3 
peculiai'ities,  and  still  more  the  general  quality  of  the 
designs,  were  to  a  large  extent  those  to  which  the  practice 
of  Gothic  architecture  had  led  them. 

A  change  which  was  partly  due  to  a  natural  desire  for 
progress,  was  helped  on  by  the  great  attention  paid  by 
students  of  architecture  to  the  remains  of  ancient  Eoman 
buildings  ;  but  it  was  the  influence  excited  by  the  powerful 
genius  of  Michelangelo,  and  by  the  gigantic  scale  and 
vigorous  treatment  of  his  masterpiece,  St.  Peter's,  which 
was  the  proximate  occasion  of  a  revolution  in  taste  and 
practice,  to  which  the  labours,  both  literary  and  artistic, 
of  Vignola,  and  the  designs  of  Palladio,  gave  form  and 
consistency.     In  the  fully-developed,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 


«  _- 


174  BENAISSANCE    AKCIIITECTUUE. 

called,  pure  Renaissance  of  Italy,  great  use  is  made  of  the 
classic  orders  and  pediment,  and  indeed  of  all  the  features 
which  the  Komans  had  employed.  Plain  wall  space  almost 
disappears  under  the  various  architectural  features  intro- 
duced, and  all  ornaments,  details,  and  mouldings  become 
bolder  and  richer,  but  often  less  refined  and  correct  in 
design. 

ROME. 

Rome,  the  capital  of  the  country,  contains,  as  was  fit,  the 
central  building  of  the  fully-developed  Renaissance,  St. 
Peter's.  Bramante,  the  Florentine,  was  the  architect  to 
whom  the  task  of  designing  a  cathedral  to  surpass  any- 
thing existing  in  Europe  was  committed  by  Pope  Julius  II. 
at  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Some  such  project 
had  been  entertained,  and  even  begun,  fifty  years  earlier, 
but  the  enterprise  was  now  started  afreoh,  a  new  design 
was  made,  and  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  Pope  in 
1506.  Bramante  died  in  some  six  or  seven  years,  and  five 
or  six  architects  in  succession,  one  of  whom  was  Raphael, 
proceeded  with  the  work,  without  advancing  it  rapidly,  for 
nearly  half  a  century,  during  which  time  the  design  was 
modified  again  and  again.  In  1546  the  great  Michel- 
angelo was  appointed  architect,  and  the  last  eighteen 
years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  carrying  on  this  great  work. 
He  completed  the  magnificent  dome  in  all  its  essential 
parts,  and  left  the  church  a  Greek  cross  (i.e.  one  which 
has  all  its  four  arms  equal)  on  plan,  with  the  dome  at  the 
crossing.  The  boast  is  attributed  to  him  that  he  Avould 
take  the  dome  of  the  Pantheon  and  hang  it  in  the  air ; 
and  this  he  has  virtually  accomplished  in  the  dome  of 
St.  Peter's — a  work  of  the  greatest  beauty  of  design  and 
boldness  of  construction. 


ROME.  175 

Unfortunately,  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeeutli 
century,  Maderno  was  employed  to  lengthen  the  nave. 
This  transformed  the  plan  of  the  cathedral  into  a  Latin 
cross.  The  existing  portico  Avas  built  at  the  same  time  ; 
and  in  1661  Bernini  added  the  vast  forecourt,  lined  by 
colonnades,  which  now  forms  the  approach. 

This  cathedral,  of  which  the  history  has  been  briefly 
sketched,  is  the  largest  in  the  world.  As  we  now  see  it, 
it  consists  of  a  vast  vestibule ;  a  nave  of  four  bays  with 
side  aisles  ;  a  vast  square  central  space  over  which  hangs 
the  great  dome ;  transepts  and  a  choir,  each,  of  one  bay  and 
an  apse.  Outside  the  great  central  space,  an  aisle,  not 
quite  like  the  ordinary  aisle  of  a  church,  exists,  and  there 
are  two  side  chapels.  It  can  be  well  understood  that  if 
the  largest  church  in  Christendom  is  divided  into  so  few 
parts,  these  must  be  themselves  of  colossal  dimensions,  and 
the  truth  is  that  the  piers  are  masses  of  masonry  Avhich  can 
be  called  nothing  else  than  vast,  while  the  spaces  spanned  by 
the  arches  and  vaults  are  prodigious.  There  is  little  sense 
of  mystery  about  the  interior  of  the  building  (Fig.  64),  the 
eye  soon  grasps  it  as  a  whole,  and  hours  must  be  spent 
in  it  before  an  idea  of  its  gigantic  size  is  at  all  taken  in. 
The  beauty  of  the  colouring  adds  wonderfully  to  the  effect 
of  St.  Peter's  upon  the  spectator,  for  the  walls  are  I'ich 
with  mosaics  and  coloured  marbles ;  and  the  interior,  the 
dome  especially,  with  the  drum  upon  which  it  rests,  are 
decorated  in  colour  throughout,  with  fine  effect  and  in 
excellent  taste.  The  interior  is  amply  lighted,  and,  though 
very  rich,  not  over  decorated  ;  its  design  is  simple  and 
noble  in  the  extreme,  and  all  its  parts  are  wonderful 
in  their  harmony.  The  connection  between  the  dome  and 
the  rest  of  the  building  is  admirable,  and  there  is  a 
sense  of  vast  space  when  the  spectator  stands  under  that 


176  REXAISSAXCE    AKCHITECTURE. 

soaring  vault  which  belongs  to  no  other  building  in  the 
world. 

The  exterior  is  disappointing  as  long  as  the  building  is 
is  seen  in  front,  for  the  facade  is  so  lofty  and  advances  so 
far  forward  as  to  cut  off  the  view  of  the  lower  part  of  the 
dome.  To  have  an  idea  of  the  building  as  Michelangelo 
designed  it,  it  is  necessary  to  go  round  to  the  back  ;  and 
then,  with  the  height  of  the  drum  fully  seen  and  the  con- 
tour of  the  dome,  with  all  its  massy  lines  of  living  force, 
carrying  the  eye  with  them  right  up  to  the  elegant 
lantern  that  crowns  the  summit,  some  conception  of  the 
hugeness  and  the  symmetry  of  this  mountain  of  art  seems 
to  dawn  on  the  mind.  But  even  here  it  is  with  the 
utmost  difficulty  that  one  can  apply  any  scale  to  the  mass, 
so  that  the  idea  which  the  mind  forms  of  its  bulk  is  con- 
tinually fluctuating. 

The  history  of-  this  building  extends  over  all  the  period 
of  developed  Renaissance  in  Rome,  and  its  list  of  archi- 
tects includes  all  the  best  known  names.  By  the  side  of 
it  every  other  church,  even  St.  John  Lateran,  appears 
insignificant;  so  that  the  secular  buildings  in  Rome,  which 
are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  excellent,  are  more  worth 
attention  than  the  churches,  though  not  a  few  of  the  three 
hundred  churches  and  basilicas  of  the  metropolis  of  Italy 
are  good  examples  of  Renaissance. 

The  altars,  tombs,  and  other  architectural  or  semi- 
architectural  works  which  occur  in  many  of  the  churches 
of  Rome,  are,  however,  finer  works  of  art  as  a  rule  than 
the  buildings  which  they  adorn.  Such  gems  are  not  con- 
fined to  Rome,  but  are  to  be  found  throughout  Italy  : 
many  of  them  belong  to  the  best  period  of  art.  Marble 
is  generally  the  material,  and  the  light  as  a  rule  falls 
on    these    w^orks    in    one    direction    only.      Under    these 


Fig.  64.— St.  Petkb'.s  at  Romf.     Interior.     (1506-16fiV> 
G   A  N 


178  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTliRE. 

ciircunistiiu'ces  the  most  subtle  moulding  give^  a  play  of  light 
and  shade,  and  the  most  delicate  carving  produces  a  richness 
of  effect  which  cannot  be  attained  in  exterior  architecture, 
executed  for  the  most  part  in  stone,  exposed  to  the  weather, 
and  seen  by  diffused  and  reflected  light.  Nothing  of  this 
sort  is  finer  than  the  monuments  by  Sansovino,  erected  in 
S(a.  Maria  del  Popolo  at  Eome,  one  of  which  we  illustrate 
on  a  small  scale  (Fig.  65).  The  magnificent  altar-piece  in 
Sta.  Coronals  at  Vicenza,  in  which  is  framed  Bellini's 
picture  of  the  baptism  of  Christ,  is  another  example,  on 
an  unusually  large  scale — fine  in  style,  and  covered  with 
beautiful  ornament. 

No  secular  building  exists  in  Rome  so  early  or  so  simple 
as  the  severe  Florentine  palaces ;  but  Bramante,  who 
belongs  to  the  early  period,  erected  there  the  fine  Can- 
celleria  palace  ;'and  the  Palazzo  Giraud  (Fig.  G6).  These 
buildings  resemble  one  another  very  closely  ;  each  bears 
the  impress  of  refined  taste,  but  delicacy  has  been  carried 
almost  to  timidity.  The  pilasters  and  cornices  which  are 
emjjloyed  have  the  very  slightest  projection,  but  the  large 
mass  of  the  wall  as  compared  with  the  openings,  secures  an 
appearance  of  solidity,  and  hence  of  dignity.  The  interior 
of  the  Cancel] eria  contains  an  arcaded  quadrangle  (cortile) 
of  great  beauty.  Smaller  palaces  belonging  to  the  same 
period  and  of  the  same  refined,  but  somewhat  weak, 
character  exist  in  Rome. 

The  Vatican  Palace  is  so  vast  that,  like  St.  Peter's,  it 
took  more  than  one  genei'ation  to  complete.  To  Bramante's 
time  belongs  the  great  Belvedere,  since  much  altered,  but 
in  its  original  state  an  admirable  woik.  This  palace  also 
can  show  some  remarkable  additions  by  Bernini,  a  much 
later  architect,  with  much  that  is  not  admirable  or  remark- 
able   by   other  hands.     The   finest   Roman    palace    is  the 


~X.A,H.lm. 

Fig.  65. — Montment,  by  Saxsovino,  in  Sta.  Maeia  del  Popolo. 
Rome.     (15th  Centurt.) 


180 


RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTURE. 


Farnese,  begun  by  San  Gallo  in  1530,  continued  by 
Michelangelo,  and  completed  by  Giacomo  della  Porta, 
each  architect  having  altered  the  design.  This  building, 
notwithstanding  its  chequered  history,  is  a  dignified,  im- 
pressive mass.  It  has  only  three  storeys  and  a  scarcely 
marked  basement,  and  is  nearly  square,  with  a  large 
quadrangle  in  its  heart.     It  is  very  lofty,  and  has  a  great 


Fig.  66. — Palazzo  Giraud  (now  Torlonia),  Rome.     By  Bramante.     (1506.) 


height  of  unpiex'ced  wall  over  each  storey  of  windows, 
and  is  crowned  by  a  bold  and  highly-enriched  cornice — 
an  unusual  thing  for  Eomej  In  this,  and  in  many  palaces 
built  about  the  same  time,  the  windows  are  ornamented 
in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  Pandolfini  Palace  at 
Florence ;  the  use  of  pilasters  instead  of  columns  is 
general ;  the  openings  are  usually  square-headed,  circular 
heads  being  usually  confined  to  arcades  and  loggie  ;  the 


ROME.  181 

angles  are  marked  by  rustication,  and  the  only  cornice  is 
the  one  that  crowns  the  whole.  This  general  character 
will  apply  to  most  of  the  works  of  Baldassare  Peruzzi, 
Vignola,  Sangallo,  and  Raphael,  who  were,  with  Michel- 
angelo, the  foremost  ai'chitects  in  Rome  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  But  "  the  woi'ks  executed  by  Michelangelo  are 
in  a  bolder  and  more  pictorial  style,  as  are  also  many 
productions  grafted  on  the  earlier  Italian  manner  by  a 
numerous  class  of  succeeding  architects.  In  these  is  to 
be  remarked  a  greater  use  of  columns,  engaged  and  iso- 
lated ;  stronger  but  less  studied  details  ;  and  a  greater 
upe  of  colonnades,  in  which  however  the  combination  with 
the  semicircular  arch  is  still  unusual,  the  antique  in  this 
respect  being  followed  to  a  gi'eat  disadvantage.  Still  there 
is  a  nobility,  a  palatial  look  about  these  large  mansions 
which  is  very  admirable,  and  is  to  be  remarked  in  all  the 
palaces,  even  up  to  the  time  of  Borromini,  circa  1640,  by 
whom  all  the  principles  and  parts  of  Roman  architecture 
were  literally  turned  topsy-turvey.  Michelangelo's  pecu- 
liar style  was  more  thoroughly  carried  out  on  ecclesiastical 
buildings,  and  as  practised  by  his  successors,  exhibits  much 
that  is  fine,  in  large  masses,  boldly  projecting  cornices, 
three-quarter  columns,  and  noble  domes ;  but  it  is  other- 
wise debased  by  great  misconceptions  as  to  the  reasonable 
application  of  architecture."- — M.  D.  w. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  a  decline  set  in.  The  late 
Renaissance  has  neither  the  severity  of  the  early,  nor  the 
dignified  richness  of  the  mature  time,  but  is  extravagant  ; 
though  at  Rome  examples  of  its  extreme  phase  are  not 
common.  Maderno,  who  erected  the  west  front  of  St. 
Peter's,  and  Bernini,  who  added  the  outer  forecourt  and 
also  built  the  curiously  designed  state  staircase  (the  scaln 
regia)   in    the   Vatican,   are    the  foremost  architects.     To 


182  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

these  must  be  added  Borromini.  The  great  Barberini 
Palace  belongs  to  this  century ;  but  perhaps  its  most 
characteristic  works  are  the  fountains,  some  of  them  with 
elaborate  architectural  backgrounds,  which  ornament  many 
of  the  open  places  in  Rome.  Few  of  the  buildings  of  the 
eighteenth  century  in  Rome,  or  indeed  in  Italy  generally, 
claim  attention  as  architectural  works  of  a  high  order 
of  merit. 

Before  leaving  central  Italy  for  the  north,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  mention  the  masterpiece  of  Vignola — the  great 
Farnese  Palace  at  Caprarola ;  and  to  add  that  in  every 
city  of  importance  examples  more  or  less  admirable  of  the 
art  of  the  time  were  erected. 


VENICE,    VICENZA,    AND    VERONA. 

The  next  great  group  of  Renaissance  buildings  is  to  be 
found  at  Venice,  where  the  style  was  adopted  with  some 
reluctance,  and  not  till  far  on  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
At  first  we  meet  with  some  admixture  of  Gothic  elements  ; 
as,  for  example,  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  internal  quad- 
rangle of  the  Ducal  Palace.  Pointed  arches  are  partly 
employed  in  this  work,  which  was  completed  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  earlier  palaces — 
which,  it  will  be  remembered,  are  comparatively  narrow 
buildings  standing  side  by  side  on  the  banks  of  the  canals — 
the  storeys  are  well  marked  ;  the  windows  are  round  headed 
with  smaller  arches  within  the  main  ones  ;  the  orders  when 
introduced  are  kept  subordinate ;  the  windows  are  grouped 
together  in  the  central  portion  of  the  front,  as  was  the 
case  with  those  of  the  Gothic  palaces,  and  very  little  use 
is  made  of  rusticated  masonry.     The  Vendramini,  Cornaro, 


ITALY.  183 

and  Trevisano  Palaces  conform  to  this  type.  To  the  same 
period  belong  one  or  two  fine  churches,  the  most  famous 
being  San  Zacaria,  a  building  with  a  very  delicately 
panelled  front,  and  a  semicircular  pediment  in  lieu  of  a 
gable ;  here,  too,  semicircular-headed  openings  are  made 
use  of.  In  many  of  these  churches  and  other  buildings, 
a  beautiful  ornament,  which  may  be  regarded  as  typical  of 
(arly  Venetian   Remissance,    is    to  be  found.      It   is    the 


I-iG.  67. — Italian  Shell  Ornament. 


shell  ornament,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  flat 
semicircular  shell,  ribbed  from  the  centre  to  the  circum- 
ference (Fig.  67). 

As  time  went  on  the  style  was  matured  into  one  of  great 
I'ichness,  not  to  say  ostentation,  with  which  the  names  of 
Sansovino,  Sanmichele,  Palladio,  and  Scamozzi  are  identified 
as  the  prominent  architects  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  In  this  city  of 
palaces  Sansovino,  also  a  very  fine  sculptor,  built  the  ceifa 
brated   Library  of     St.    Mark,    facing    the    Ducal   Palace, 


184  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

whicli  has  been  followed  very  closely  in  the  design  of 
the  Carlton  Club,  Pall  Mall.  Here,  as  in  the  splendid 
Cornaro  Palace,  the  architect  relied  chiefly  upon  the 
columns  and  entablatures  of  the  orders,  combined  with 
grand  arcades  enriched  by  sculpture,  so  arranged  as  to 
occupy  the  spaces  between  the  columns  ;  almost  the  whole 
of  the  wall-space  was  so  taken  up,  and  the  basement  only 
was  covered  with  rustication,  often  rough  worked,  as  at 
the  beautiful  Palazzo  Pompeii,  Vei'ona,  and  the  Grimani 
Palace,  Venice. 

"  Sanmichele's  works  are  characterised  chiefly  by  their 
excellent  proportions,  their  carefully  studied  detail,  their 
strength,  and  their  beauty  (qualities  so  diflScult  to  com- 
bine). We  believe  that  the  buildings  of  this  great  architect 
and  engineer  at  Verona  are  pre- eminent  in  their  peculiar 
style  over  those  of  any  other  artist  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  a  different,  but  no  less  meritorious,  manner 
are  the  b^^ildings  designed  by  Sansovino ;  they  are  cha- 
racterised by  a  more  sculptural  and  ornamental  character  ; 
order  over  order  with  large  arched  voids  in  the  interspaces 
of  the  columns  producing  a  pictorial  effect  which  might 
have  led  his  le>s  gifted  followers  into  a  false  style,  but  for 
the  example  of  the  celebrated  Palladio."— m.  d.  w. 

To  the  latest  time  of  the  Renaissance  in  Venice  belongs 
the  picturesque  domed  church  of  St.  Maria  della  Salute, 
conspicuous  in  many  views  of  the  Grand  Canal,  a  building 
which  is  a  work  of  real  genius  in  spite  of  what  is  con- 
sidered its  false  taste.  It  dates  from  1632.  The  architect 
is  Longhena. 

An  almost  endless  series  of  palaces  and  houses  can  be 
found  in  Venice,  all  of  them  rich,  but  few  of  great  ex- 
tent, for  every  foot  of  space  had  to  be  won  from  the  sea 
by  laborious  engineering.     There  are  some  features  which 


ITALY. 


185 


never  fail  to  present  themselves,  and  which  are  conse- 
quences of  the  conditions  under  which  the  structures  were 
designed.      All  rise  from  the  water,  and  require  to  admit 


Fig.  t)8. — The  Church  of  the  Reuentore,  Venice.    (15"().) 


of  gondolas  coming  under  the  walls  ;  hence  there  is  always 
a  principal  central  entrance  with  steps  in  front,  but  this 
entrance  never  has  any  sort  of  projecting  portico  or  porch, 


186  RENAISSANCE    ARCIIITECTURE. 

and  is  never  very  much  larger  than  the  other  openings  in 
the  front.  As  a  straight  frontage  to  the  water  had  to  be 
preserved,  we  hardly  ever  meet  with  such  a  thing  as  a  break 
or  projection  of  any  sort ;  but  the  Venetian  architects  have 
found  other  means  of  giving  interest  to  their  elevations, 
and  it  is  to  the  very  restrictions  imposed  by  circumstances 
that  we  owe  the  gi-eat  originality  displayed  in  their  earlier 
buildings.  The  churches  do  not  usually  front  directly  on 
to  the  water  ;  and  though  they  are  almost  all  good  of  their 
kind,  they  are  far  more  commonplace  than  the  palaces. 
The  system  of  giving  variety  to  the  farade  of  the  secular 
buildings  by  massing  openings  near  the  centre,  has  been 
alieady  referred  to.  Both  shadow  and  richness  were  also 
aimed  at  in  the  employment  of  projecting  balconies;  in  fact 
the  two  usually  go  together,  for  the  great  central  window 
or  group  of  windows  mostly  has  a  large  and  rich  balcony 
belonging  to  it. 

Not  far  from  Venice  is  Vicenza,  and  here  Palladio,  whose 
best  buildings  in  Venice  are  churches,  such,  for  example, 
as  the  Redentore  (Fig.  G8),  enjoyed  an  opportunity  of 
erecting  a  whole  group  of  palaces,  the  fronts  of  which 
ai'e  extremely  remarkable  as  designs ;  though,  being  exe- 
cuted in  brick  and  plastered,  they  are  now  falling  to  ruin. 
There  is  much  variety  in  them,  and  while  some  of  them 
rely  upon  his  device  of  lofty  pilasters  to  include  two  storeys 
of  the  bulling  under  one  storey  of  architectural  treatment, 
others  are  handled  differently.  In  all  a  singularly  fine 
feeling  for  proportion  and  for  the  appropriate  omission  as 
well  as  introduction  of  ornament  is  to  be  detected.  The 
w^orst  defect  of  these  fronts  is,  however,  that  they  appear 
more  like  masks  than  the  exteriors  of  buildings,  for  there 
is  little  obvious  connection  between  the  features  of  the 
exterior  and    anything   which    we    may  suppose    to   exi.st 


ITALY.  187 

inside  the  building.  The  finest  architectural  work  left 
behind  by  Palladio  in  this  city  are,  however,  the  great 
arcades  with  which  he  surrounded  the  Basilica,  a  va.st 
building  of  the  middle  ages  ah-eady  alluded  to.  These 
arcades  are  two  storeys  high,  and  are  rich,  yet  vigorous  ; 
they  ornament  the  great  structure,  the  roof  of  which  may 
be  St  en  rising  behind,  without  overpoweiing  it. 


MILAN    AND    PAVIA. 

In  Milan  two  buildings  at  least  belong  to  the  early 
Kenaissance.  These  are  the  sacristy  of  Sta  Maria  presso 
San  Satiro,  and  the  eastei*n  portion  of  the  church  of  Sta. 
Maria  delle  Grazie;  Bra  man te  was  the  architect  of  both. 
The  last-named  work  is  an  addition  to  an  existing  Gothic 
church;  it  is  executed  in  the  terracotta  and  brick  of 
Lombardy,  materials  which  the  Renaissance  architects 
seemed  to  shun  in  later  times,  and  is  full  of  the  most 
profuse  and  elegant  ornaments.  The  design  consij-ts  of  a 
dome,  treated  externally  a  little  like  some  of  the  Lombard 
domes  of  earlier  date ;  and  three  apses  forming  choir  and 
transepts.  It  is  divided  into  several  stages,  and  abun- 
dantly varied  in  its  panelling  and  ai'cading,  and  is  full  of 
vigour.  By  Bramante  is  also  the  very  beautiful  arcaded 
quadrangle  of  the  great  hospital  at  Milan,  the  Gothic  front 
of  which  has  been  already  noticed.  There  are  many 
Renaissance  buildings  of  later  date  in  Milan,  but  none 
very  remarkable. 

To  the  early  period  belongs  the  design  of  the  facade  of 
the  Certosa  near  Pa  via,  part  of  which  is  shown  (Fig.  69). 
This  was  begun  as  early  as  1473,  by  Ambrogio  Borgognone, 
and  was  long  in  hand.    It  proceeded  on  the  lines  settled  thus 


P'lG.  G9.— The  Cektosa  near  Pavia.    Part  of  the  West  Front. 
(Begun  by  Borgjgxone  1473.) 


ITALY.  189 

early,  and  is  probably  the  richest  far-ade  belonging  to  any 
church  in  Christendom  ;  it  is  executed  entirely  in  marble. 
Sculpture  is  employed  to  adorn  every  part  that  is  near 
the  eye,  and  especially  the  portal,  wh'ch  is  flanked  by 
pilasters  with  their  faces  panelled  and  occupied  by  splendid 
alti  relievi.  The  upper  part  is  enriched  by  inlays  of  costly 
marbles,  but  the  two  systems  of  decoration  do  not  thoroughly 
hai-monise ;  for  the  upper  half  looks  coarse,  which  it  in 
reality  is  not,  in  contrast  with  the  delicate  richness  of  the 
carving  near  the  eye.  The  great  features,  such  as  the 
entrance,  the  windows,  and  the  angle  pinnacles  are 
thoroughly  good,  and  an  arcade  of  small  arches  is  twice 
introduced, — once  running  completely  across  the  front  at 
about  half  its  height,  and  again  near  the  top  of  the 
central  portion, — with  excellent  effect  (see  Frontispiece). 


GENOA,  TURIN,  AND  NAPLES. 

Turning  now  to  Genoa  we  find,  as  we  may  in  several 
great  cities  of  Italy,  that  very  great  success  has  been 
achieved  by  an  artist  whose  works  are  to  be  seen  in  no 
other  city,  and  whose  fame  is  proportionally  I'estricted. 
Just  as  the  power  of  Luini  as  a  painter  can  only  be  fully 
understood  at  Milan,  or  that  of  Giulio  Eomano  at  Mantua, 
so  the  genius  of  Alessio  (1500  to  1572)  as  an  architect  can 
only  be  understood  at  Genoa.  From  the  designs  of  this 
aicbitect  were  built  a  series  of  well  planned  and  imposing 
palaces.  These  buildings  have  most  of  them  the  advantage 
of  fine  and  roomy  sites.  The  fronts  are  varied,  but  as  a 
rule  consist  of  a  very  bold  basement,  with  admirably-treated 
vigorous  mouldings,  supporting  a  lighter  superstructure,  and 
in  one  or  two  instances  flanked  by  an  open  arcade  at  the 


190  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

wings.  The  entrance  gives  access,  through  a  vaulted  hall, 
to  the  cortile,  which  is  usually  planned  and  designed  in 
the  most  effective  manner ;  and  in  several  instances  the 
state  staircase  is  so  combined  with  this  feature  that  on 
ascending  the  first  flight  the  visitor  comes  to  a  point  of 
sight  for  which  the  whole  may  be  said  to  have  been 
designed,  and  from  which  a  splendid  composition  of 
columns  and  arches  is  seen.  The  I'ooms  and  galleries  in 
these  palaces  are  very  fine,  and  in  several  instances  have 
been  beautifully  decorated  in  fresco  by  Perino  del  Vaga. 

Alessio  was  also  the  architect  of  a  large  domical  church 
(il  Carignano)  in  the  same  city ;  but  it  is  far  inferior  in 
merit  to  his  series  of  palaces.  Genoa  also  possesses  a 
famous  church  (the  Annunziata)  of  late  Renaissance, 
attributed  to  Puget  (1622-1694:).  It  is  vaulted,  and 
enriched  with  mai-bles,  mosaics,  and  colour  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  may  fairly  claim  to  be  the  most  gaudy  church 
in  Italy,  which  is  unfortunate,  as  its  original  undecorat((d 
design  is  fine  and  simple. 

Turin  in  the  north,  and  Naples  in  the  south,  are  chiefly 
remarkable  for  examples  of  the  latest  and  more  or  less 
debased  Renaissance,  and  we  therefore  do  not  propose  to 
illustrate  or  describe  any  of  the  buildings  in  either  city. 


COUNTRY    VILLAS. 

As  the  ancient  Roman  patrician  had  his  villa,  which 
was  his  country  resort,  the  Italian  of  the  revival  followed 
his  example,  and,  if  he  was  wealthy  enough,  built  himself 
a  pleasure  house,  which  he  called  a  villa,  either  in  the 
immediate  suburbs  of  his  city,  or  at  some  little  distance 
away  in  the  country.     These  buildings   occur  throughout 


192 


RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Italy.  Many  of  them  are  excellent  examples  of  Renais- 
sance architecture  of  a  more  modest  type  than  that  of  the 
palaces.  The  Villa  Papa  Giulio,  built  from  the  designs  of 
Vignola,  and  the  Villa  Medici,  designed  by  Annibale  Lippi, 
but  attributed,  for  some  unknown  reason,  to  Michelangelo, 
may  be  mentioned  as  among  the  most  thoroughly  architec- 
tural out  of  some  twenty  or  more  splendid  villas  in  the 
suburbs  of  Rome  alone.  Many  of  these  buildings  were 
erected  late  in  the  Renaissance  period,  and  are  better 
worth  attention  for  their  fine  decorations  and  the  many 
works  of  art  collected  within  their  walls  than  as  archi- 
tectural studies — but  this  is  not  always  the  case  ;  and  as 
they  were  mostly  designed  to  serve  the  purpose  of  elegant 
museums  rather  than  that  of  country  houses  as  we  under- 
stand the  term,  they  usually  possess  noble  interiors,  and 
exhibit  throughout  elaborate  finish,  choice  materials,  and 
lavish  outlay. 


CHAPTER  XI r. 

RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  NORTH  EUROPE. 
CHRONOLOGICAL  SKETCH. 


THE  revived  classic  architecture  came  direct  from 
Italy,  and  did  not  reach  Fi-ance  till  it  had  been  well 
established  in  the  land  of  its  origin.  It  was  not  however 
received  with  the  same  welcome  which  hailed  its  appear- 
ance in  Italy.  Gothic  architecture  had  a  strong  hold  on 
France,  and  accordingly,  instead  of  a  sudden  change,  we 
meet  with  a  period  of  transition,  during  which  build- 
ings were  erected  with  features  partly  Gothic  and  partly 
Eenaissance,  and  on  varied  principles  of  design. 

French  Renaissance  underwent  great  fluctuations,  and  it 
is  less  easy  to  divide  it  into  broad  periods  than  to  refer,  as 
most  French  writers  prefer  to  do,  to  the  work  of  each 
prominent  monarch's  reign  separately. 

Francis  the  First  (1515 — 1547)  made  the  architecture 
of  Italy  fashionable  in  his  kingdom,  and  bis  name  is  boi'ne 
by  the  beautiful  transitional  style  of  his  day.  This  in  most 
cases  retains  some  Gothic  forms,  and  the  principles  of  com- 
position are  in  the  main  Gothic,  but  the  features  are  mostly 

O  A  O 


194  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

of  Italian  origin,  though  handled  with  a  fineness  of  detail 
and  a  smallness  of  scale  that  is  not  often  met  with,  even 
in  early  Italian  Renaissance.  There  are  few  buildings  more 
charming  in  the  architecture  of  any  age  or  country  than 
the  best  specimens  of  the  style  of  Francis  the  first,  and 
none  that  can  bear  so  much  decoration  and  yet  remain  so 
little  overladen  by  the  ornaments  they  carry.  The  finest 
example  is  the  Chateau  of  Chambord,  a  large  building, 
nearly  square  on  plan,  with  round  corner  towers,  capped 
by  simple  and  very  steep  roofs,  at  the  angles  ;  and  having 
as  its  central  feature,  a  large  and  lofty  mass  of  towers 
windows  and  arcades,  surmounted  by  steep  roofs,  ending  in 
a  kind  of  huge  lantern.  The  windows  have  mullions  and 
transoms  like  Gothic  windows,  but  pilasters  of  elegant 
Eenaissance  design  ornament  the  walls.  The  main  cornice 
is  a  kind  of  compromise  between  an  Italian  and  a  Gothic 
treatment.  Dormer  windows,  high  and  sharply  pointed, 
but  with  little  pilasters  and  pediments  as  their  ornaments, 
occur  constantly  ;  and  the  chimneys,  which  are  of  immense 
mass  and  great  height,  are  panelled  profusely,  and  almost 
ostentatiously  displayed,  especially  on  the  central  portion. 
In  the  interior  of  the  central  building  is  a  famous  stair- 
case ;  but  the  main  attractions  are  the  bright  and  animated 
appearance  of  the  whole  exterior,  and  the  richness  and 
gracefulness  of  the  details. 

The  same  architecture  is  to  be  well  seen  in  the  north 
side  of  the  famous  Chateau  of  Blois — a  building  parts  of 
which  were  executed  in  three  different  periods  of  French 
architecture.  The  exterior  of  the  Fraiv^ois  premier  part  of 
Blois  is  irregular,  and  portions  of  the  design  are  wildly  pic- 
turesque ;  on  the  side  which  fronts  towards  the  quadrangle, 
the  architecture  is  more  symmeti'ically  designed,  and 
beauty  rather  than  picturesque  effect  has  been  aimed  at. 


FRANCE. 


195 


An  open  staircase  is  the  part  of  the  quadrangle  upon  which 
most  care  has  been  lavished.  Throughout  the  whole  block 
of  buildings  the  character  of  each  individual  feature  and 
of  every  combination  of  features  is  graceful  and  jnquant. 


Fig.  71. — Window  from  a  House  at  Orleans.      (Early  16th  Centlt.y.) 


The  elegance  and  delicacy  of  some  of  the  carved  decoration 
in  the  interior  is  unsurpassed. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Loire  there  exist  many  noble- 
men's chateaux  of  this  date,  corresponding  in  general 
character  with  Chambord  and  Blois,  though  on  a  smaller 

o  2 


19G  BENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

scale.  Of  these  Chenonceaux,  fortunate  alike  in  its 
design  and  its  situation,  is  the  most  elegant  and  the  best 
known  :  yet  many  others  exist  which  approach  it  closely, 
such,  for  example,  as  the  Chateau  de  Gaillon — a  fragment 
of  which  forms  part  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  at  Paris 
— the  Hotel  de  Ville  of  Beaugency,  the  Chateaux  of 
Chateaudun,  Azay-le-Rideau,  La  Cote,  and  Usse ;  the 
Hotel  d'Anjou  at  Angers,  and  the  house  of  Agnes  Soi'el 
at  Orleans. 

In  the  streets  of  Orleans  houses  of  this  date  (Fig.  71) 
are  to  be  found,  showing  the  style  cleverly  adapted  to 
the  requirements  of  town  dwellings  and  shops.  Several 
of  them  also  possess  courtyards  with  arcades  or  other 
architectural  features  treated  with  great  freedom  and 
beauty,  for  instance,  the  arcades  in  the  house  of  Francois 
Premier  (Fig.  72).  An  arcade  in  the  courtyard  of  the 
Gothic  Hotel  de  Bourgtherould  at  Rouen,  is  one  of  the 
best  known  examples  of  the  style  remaining,  and  in- 
stances of  it  may  be  met  with  as  far  apart  as  at  Caen 
(east  end  of  church  of  St.  Pierre)  and  Toulouse  (parts  of 
St.  Sernin). 

One  Paris  church,  that  of  St.  Eustache,  belonging  to 
this  transitional  period  claims  mention,  since  for  bold- 
ness and  completeness  it  is  one  of  the  best  of  any  date 
in  that  city.  St.  Eustache  is  a  five-aisled  church  with 
an  apse,  transept,  and  lateral  chapels  outside  the  outer 
aisle.  It  is  vaulted  throughout,  and  its  plan  and 
structure  are  those  of  a  Gothic  church  in  all  respects.  Its 
details  are  however  all  Renaissance,  but  not  so  good  as 
those  to  be  found  at  Blois,  nor  so  appropriately  used, 
yet  notwithstanding  this  it  has  a  singularly  impressive 
interior. 

Meantime,   and  alongside  the  buildings  resulting  from 


FRANCE. 


197 


this  fusion  of  styles,  others  which  were  almost  direct 
importations  from  Italy  were  rising ;  in  some  cases,  if  not 
in  all,  under  the  direction  of  Italian  architects.     Thus  on 


Fig.  72.— Capital  from  the  House  of  Francis  I.,  Orleans.    (1540.) 


Fontainebleau,  which  Francis  I.  erected,  three  or  four 
Italian  architects,  one  of  whom  was  Vignola,  were  engaged. 
It  may  or  may  not  have  been  this  connection  of  the  great 
architect    with   this    work    which   gave    him    influence  in 


198  RENAISSANCE   ARCHITECTUEE. 

France,  but  certainly  almost  the  whole  of  the  later 
French  Renaissance,  or  at  any  rate  its  good  time,  was 
marked  by  a  conformity  to  the  practice  of  Vignola,  in 
whose  designs  we  usually  find  one  order  of  columns  or 
pilasters  for  each  storey,  rather  than  to  that  of  Palladio, 
whose  use  of  tall  columns  equalling  in  height  two  or  more 
floors  of  the  building  has  been  already  noticed. 

Designs  for  the  Louvre,  the  rebuilding  of  which  was 
commenced  in  the  reign  of  Francis  the  First  (about  a.d. 
1544),  were  made  by  Serlio,  an  Italian ;  and  though  Pierre 
Lescot  was  the  architect  of  the  portion  built  in  that  reign, 
it  is  probable  that  the  design  obtained  from  Serlio  was 
in  the  main  followed.  The  part  then  finished,  which,  to  a 
certain  extent  gave  the  keynote  to  the  whole  of  this  vast 
building,  was  unquestionably  a  happy  effort,  and  may  be 
taken  to  mark  the  establishment  of  a  French  version  of 
matured  Renaissance  architecture.  The  main  building  has 
two  orders  of  pilasters  with  cornices,  &e.,  and  above  them 
a  low  attic  storey,  with  short  piers  :  at  the  angles  a  taller 
pavilion  was  introduced,  and  next  the  quadrangle  arcades 
are  introduced  between  the  pilasters.  The  sculpture,  some 
of  it  at  least,  is  from  the  chisel  of  Jean  Goujon ;  it  is 
good  and  well  placed,  and  the  whole  has  an  air  of  dignity 
and  richness.  The  Pavilion  Richelieu,  shewn  in  our  en- 
graving (Fig.  73),  was  not  built  till  the  next  century.  The 
colossal  figures  are  by  Barye. 

A  little  later  in  date  than  the  early  part  of  the  Louvre 
was  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  built  from  the  designs  of  Pietro 
di  Cortona,  an  Italian,  and  said  to  have  been  begun  in 
1549.  The  building  had  been  greatly  extended  before 
its  recent  total  destruction  by  fire,  but  the  central  part, 
which  was  the  original  portion,  was  a  fine  vigorous  compo- 
sition, having  two  lofty  pavilions,  with  high  roofs  at  the 


Fig.  73. — Pavillon  Richelieu  of  the  Louvre,  Paris, 


200  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

extremities,  and  a  remarkably  rich  stone  lantern  of  great 
height  for  a  central  feature. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  the  Palace  of  the  Tuileries 
was  commenced  (1564)  for  Catherine  de  Mcdicis,  from  the 
designs  of  Philibert  Delorme.  Of  this  building,  that  part 
only  which  fronted  the  garden  was  erected  at  the  time. 
Our  illustration  (Fig.  74)  shows  the  architectural  cha- 
racter of  a  portion  of  it,  and  it  is  easy  to  detect  that 
considerable  alterations  have  by  this  time  been  introduced 
into  the  treatment  of  the  features  of  Renaissance  architec- 
ture. The  bands  of  rustication  passing  round  the  pilasters 
as  well  as  the  walls,  the  broken  pediments  on  the  upper 
storey,  surmounted  by  figures,  and  supported  by  long 
carved  pilasters,  and  the  shape  of  the  dormer  windows 
are  all  of  them  quite  foreign  to  Renaissance  architecture 
as  practised  in  Italy,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  essentially 
French  features.  Similar  details  were  employed  in  the 
work  executed  at  about  the  same  period,  by  the  same  and 
other  arch  tects,  in  other  buildings,  as  may  be  seen  by  our 
illustration  (Fig.  75)  of  a  portion  of  Delorme's  work  at 
the  Louvre.  In  these  features,  which  may  be  found  in 
the  Chateau  d'Anet  and  other  works  of  the  same  time, 
and  in  the  style  to  which  they  belong,  may  be  seen  the 
direct  result  of  Michelangelo's  Medici  Chapel  at  Florence, 
a  work  which  had  much  more  effect  on  French  than  on 
Italian  architecture.  The  full  development  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  Michelangelo  (or  rather  the  ornamental  portions 
of  it)  is  to  be  found  in  French  Renaissance,  rather  than 
in  the  works  of  his  own  successors  in  Italy, 

Much  of  the  late  sixteenth  century  aichitecture  of  France 
was  very  inferior,  and  the  parts  of  the  Louvre  and  Tuileries 
which  date  from  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  are  the  least 
satisfactory  portions  of  those  vast  piles. 


Fig.  74.— Pakt  or  THii  Tuileuies,  Pauis.    (Begun  1504. 


202 


RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 


Dating  from  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
we  have  the  Palais  Royal  built  for  Richelieu,  and  the 
Palace  of  the  Luxembourg,  a  building  perhaps  more  cor- 
rect and  quiet  than  original  or  beautiful,  but  against  which 
the  reproach  of  extravagant  ornament  cannot  certainly  be 
brought. 


L    ■  ■    ^WS^l 


Fig.  V5. — Capital  from  Delorme's  work  at  the  Louvre. 
(Middle  of  16th  Century.) 


With  Louis  the  Fourteenth  (1643  to  1715)  came  in  a 
great  building  period,  of  which  the  most  striking  memorial 
is  the  vast  and  uninteresting  Palace  of  Versailles.  The 
architect  was  the  younger  Mansard  (1647  to  176S),  and 
the   vastness  of   the  scale  upon  which   he    worked  only 


FKANCE.  203 

makes  his  failure  to  rise  to  his  grand  opportunity  the  more 
conspicuous.  The  absence  of  features  to  diversify  the  sky- 
line is  one  of  the  greatest  defects  of  this  building,  a  defect 
the  less  excusable  as  the  high-pitched  roof  of  Gothic  origin 
had  never  been  abandoned  in  France.  This  roof  has  been 
employed  with  great  success  in  many  buildings  of  the 
French  Renaissance.  Apart  fi'om  this  fault,  the  archi- 
tectural features  of  Versailles  are  so  monotonous,  weak, 
and  uninteresting  that  the  building,  though  its  size  may 
astonish  the  spectator,  seldom  rouses  admiration. 

Far  better  is  the  eastern  block  of  the  Louvre  (the  por- 
tion facing  the  Place  du  Louvre),  though  here  also  we  find 
the  absence  of  high  roofs,  and  the  consequent  monotony  of 
the  sky-line — a  defect  attaching  to  hardly  any  other 
portion  of  the  building.  Bernini  was  invited  from  Italy 
for  this  work,  and  there  is  a  curious  story  in  one  of  Sir 
Christopher  AVren  s  published  letters  of  an  interview  he 
had  with  Bernini  while  the  latter  was  in  Paris  on  this 
business,  and  of  the  glimpse  which  he  was  allowed  to  enjoy 
of  the  design  the  Italian  had  made.  The  building  was,  how- 
ever, after  all,  designed  and  carried  out  by  Perrault,  and, 
though  somewhat  severe,  possesses  great  beauty  and  much 
of  that  dignity  in  which  Versailles  is  wanting. 

The  best  French  work  of  this  epoch  to  be  found  in  or 
out  of  Paris  is  probably  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  (Fig.  76), 
with  its  fine  central  feature.  This  is  crowned  by  the  most 
striking  dome  in  Paris,  one  which  takes  rank  as  second  only 
in  Europe  to  our  own  St.  Paul's,  for  beavity  of  form  and 
appropriateness  of  treatment.  The  two  domes  are  indeed 
somewhat  alike  in  general  outline. 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  witnessed  a  large  amount  of 
building  throughout  France,  as  well  as  in  the  metropolis, 
and  to  the  same  period  we  must  refer  an  enormous  amount 


204  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

of  lavish  decoration  in  the  interior  of  buildings,  the  taste 
of  which  is  to  our  eyes  painfully  exti-avagant.  Purer  taste 
on  the  whole  prevailed,  if  not  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 
certainly  in  that  of  Louis  XVI.,  to  which  period  much  really 
good  decorative  work,  and  some  successful  architecture 
belongs.  The  chief  building  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  is  the  Pantheon  (Ste  Genevieve),  the 
best  domed  church  in  France,  and  one  which  must  always 
take  a  high  rank  among  Renaissance  buildings  of  any  age 
or  country.  The  architect  was  Soufflot,  and  his  ambition, 
like  that  of  the  old  Gothic  masons,  was  not  only  to  produce 
a  work  of  art,  but  a  feat  of  skill  ;  his  design  accordingly 
provided  a  smaller  area  of  walls  and  piers  compared  with 
the  total  floor  space  than  any  other  Renaissance  church,  or 
indeed  than  any  great  church,  except  a  few  of  the  very  best 
specimens  of  late  Gothic  construction,  such  for  example  as 
King's  College  Chapel.  The  result  has  been  that  the  fabric 
has  not  been  quite  stout  enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  the 
dome,  and  that  it  has  required  to  be  tied  and  propped  and 
strengthened  in  various  ways  from  time  to  time.  The  plan 
of  the  Pantheon  is  a  Greek  cross,  with  a  short  vestibule,  and 
a  noble  portico  at  the  west,  and  a  choir  corresponding  to  the 
vestibule  on  the  east.  It  has  a  fine  central  dome,  which  is 
excellently  seen  from  many  points  of  view  externally,  and 
forms  the  principal  feature  of  the  very  effective  interior. 
Each  arm  of  the  building  is  covered  by  a  flat  domical 
vault ;  a  single  order  of  pilasters  and  columns  runs  quite 
round  the  interior  of  the  church  occupying  the  entire 
height  of  the  walls  ;  and  the  light  is  admitted  in  a  most 
successful  manner  by  large  semicircular  windows  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  church,  starting  above  the  cornice  of 
the  order. 

One  other  work  of  the  eighteenth  century  challenges  the 


Fig.  76.— L'Eglise  des  Intaxides,  Paris.    By  J.  H.  Mansard. 
(Begun  a.d.  1645.; 


206  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

admiration  of  every  visitor  to  Paris  and  must  not  be  over- 
looked, because  it  is  at  once  a  specimen  of  architecture 
and  of  that  skilful  if  formal  airangement  of  streets  and 
public  places  in  combination  with  buildings  which  the 
French  have  carried  so  far  in  the  present  century.  We  allude 
to  the  two  blocks  of  buildings,  occupied  as  government 
offices,  which  front  to  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  and  stand 
at  the  corner  of  the  Rue  Royale.  They  are  the  work  of 
Gabriel  (1710-1782),  and  are  justly  admired  as  dignified 
if  a  little  heavy  and  uninteresting.  As  specimens  of  archi- 
tecture these  buildings,  with  the  Pantheon,  are  enough  to 
establish  a  high  character  for  French  art  at  a  time  when 
in  most  other  European  countries  the  standard  of  taste 
had  fallen  to  a  very  low  level. 

The  hotels  (i.e.  town  mansions)  and  chateaux  of  the 
French  nobility  furnish  a  series  of  examples,  showing  the 
successive  styles  of  almost  every  part  of  the  Eenaissance 
period.  The  phases  of  the  style,  subsequent  to  that  of 
Francis  the  First,  can  however,  be  so  well  illustrated  by 
public  buildings  in  Paris,  that  it  will  be  hardly  necessary 
to  go  through  a  list  of  private  residences  however  command- 
ing ;  but  the  Chateau  of  Maisons,  and  the  Royal  Chateau 
of  Fontainebleau,  may  be  named  as  specimens  of  a  class  of 
building  which  shows  the  capacity  of  the  Renaissance  style 
when  freely  treated. 

Eenaissance  buildings  in  France  are  distinguished  by 
their  large  extent  and  the  ample  space  which  has  been  in 
many  instances  secured  in  connection  with  them.  Thfey 
are  rarely  of  great  height  or  imposing  mass  like  the  early 
Italian  palaces.  For  the  most  part  they  are  a  good  deal 
broken  up,  the  surface  of  the  walls  is  much  covered  by 
architectural  features,  not  usually  on  a  large  scale,  so  that 
the  impi'ession  of  extent  which  really  belongs  to  them  is 


BELGIUM  AND  THE  NETHERLANDS.  207 

intensified  by  the  treatment  which  their  architects  have 
adopted. 

Orders  are  frequently  introduced  and  usually  correspond 
with  the  storeys  of  the  building.  However  this  may  be 
the  storeys  are  always  well  marked.  The  skyline  also 
is  generally  picturesque  and  telling,  though  Versailles  and 
the  work  of  Lescot  at  the  Louvre  form  an  exception. 
Eustication  is  not  much  employed,  and  the  vast  but  simple 
crowning  cornices  of  the  Italian  palaces  are  never  made 
use  of.  Narrow  fronts  like  those  at  Venice,  and  open 
arcades  cr  loggias  like  those  of  Genoa,  do  not  foi-m  features 
of  French  Renaissance  buildings;  but  on  the  other  hand, 
much  richness,  and  many  varieties  of  treatment  which  the 
Italians  never  attempted,  were  tried,  and  as  a  rule  success- 
fully, in  France. 

Much  good  sculpture  is  employed  in  external  enrich- 
ments, and  a  cultivated  if  often  luxuriant  taste  is  always 
shown.  Many  of  the  interiors  are  rich  with  carving, 
gilding,  and  mirrors,  but  harmonious  coloured  decoration  is 
rare,  and  the  fine  and  costly  mosaics  of  Italy  are  almost 
unknown. 


BELGIUM    AND    THE    NETHERLANDS. 

These  countries  afiord  but  few  examples  of  Renaissance. 
The  Town  Hall  at  Antwerp,  an  interesting  building  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  the  Church  of  St.  Anne  at  Bruges, 
are  the  most  conspicuous  buildings  ;  and  there  are  other 
churches  in  the  style  which  aie  characteristic,  and  parts  of 
which  are  really  fine.  The  interiors  of  some  of  the  town 
halls  display  fittings  of  Renaissance  character,  often  rich 
and  fanciful  in  the  extreme,  and  bearing  a  general 
resemblance  to  French  work  of  the  same  period. 


Fio.  77.— "Window  from  Colmar.    (1575.) 


Fig,  78. — ZEroHAus,  Daktzic.    (1605.) 


G   A 


210  RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE. 

GERMANY  AND  NORTHERN  EUROPE. 

Buildings  of  pure  Renaissance  architecture,  anterior  to 
the  nineteenth  centuiy,  are  scarce  in  Germany,  or  indeed 
in  North-east  Europe  ;  but  a  transitional  style,  resembling 
our  own  Elizabethan,  grew  up  and  long  held  its  ground,  so 
that  many  picturesque  buildings  can  be  met  with,  of  which 
the  design  indicates  a  fusion  of  the  ideas  and  features  of 
Gothic  with  those  of  classic  art.  This  architectural  style 
took  so  strong  a  hold  that  examples  of  it  may  be  found 
throughout  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  in 
almost  every  northern  town. 

That  part  of  the  Castle  of  Heidelberg,  which  was  built 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  may  be  cited 
as  belonging  to  this  German  transitional  style.  The  front 
in  this  case  is  regularly  divided  by  pilasters  of  the  classic 
orders,  but  very  irregular  in  their  proportions  and  position. 
The  windows  are  strongly  marked,  and  with  carved  mullions. 
Large  dormer  windows  break  into  the  high  roof ;  orna- 
ments abound,  and  the  whole  presents  a  curiously  blended 
mixture  of  the  regular  and  the  picturesque.  Rather 
earlier  in  date,  and  perhaps  rather  more  Gothic  in  their 
genei'al  treatment,  are  such  buildings  as  the  great  Council 
Hall  at  Rothenberg  (1572),  that  at  Leipzig  (1556),  the 
Castle  of  Stuttgart  (1553),  with  its  picturesque  arcaded 
quadrangle,  or  the  lofty  and  elaborate  Cloth  Hall  at 
Brunswick. 

Examples  of  similar  character  abound  in  the  old  inns 
of  G3rmany  and  Switzerland,  and  many  charming  features, 
such  as  the  window  from  Colmar  (Fig.  77),  dated  1575, 
■which  forms  one  of  our  illustrations  could  be  brought 
forward.  Another  development  of  the  same  mixed  style 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  Zeug  House  at  Dantzic  (1605), 


Fig.  79.— Council-house  at  Letden.     (1599.) 


212  REXVISSAXCE    ARCIIITECTURK, 

of  which  we  give  the  i-ear  elevation  (Fig.  78).  Not 
altogether  dissimilar  from  these  in  character  is  the  finely- 
designed  Castle  of  Fredericksberg  at  Copenhagen,  testify- 
ing to  the  wide  spread  of  the  phase  of  architecture  to 
which  we  are  calling  attention.  The  date  of  this  build- 
ing is  1610.  A  richer  example,  but  one  little  if  at  all 
nearer  to  Italian  feeling,  is  the  Council  House  at  Leyden, 
a  portion  of  which  we  illustrate  (Fig.  79).  This  building 
dates  from  1590,  and  bears  more  resemblance  to  English 
Elizabethan  in  its  ornaments,  than  to  the  architecture  of 
any  other  country. 

Simultaneously  with  these,  some  buildings  made  their 
appeai'ance  in  Germany,  which,  though  still  picturesque, 
showed  the  dawn  of  a  wish  to  adopt  the  features  of  pure 
Eenaissance.  The  quadrangle  of  the  Castle  of  Schalaburg 
(Fig.  80),  may  be  taken  as  a  specimen  of  the  adoption  of 
Eenaissance  ideas  as  well  as  forms.  It  is  in  effect  an  Italian 
cortile,  though  more  ornate  than  Italian  architects  would 
have  made  it.  It  was  built  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  seems  to  point  to  a  wish  to  make  use  of  the 
new  style  with  but  little  admixture  of  northern  ornament 
or  treatment. 

When  architecture  had  quite  passed  through  the  tran- 
sition period,  which  fortunately  lasted  long,  the  buildings, 
not  only  of  Germany,  but  of  the  north  generally,  became 
uninteresting  and  tame  ;  in  fact,  they  present  so  few  dis- 
tinguishing features,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  describe  or 
ilkistrate  them.  Russia,  it  is  true,  contains  a  few  striking 
buildings  belonging  to  the  eighteenth  century,  but  most 
of  those  which  we  might  desire  to  refer  to,  were  built 
subsequent  to  the  close  of  that  century. 


Fig.  80.— Quadrangie  of  the  Castle  of  Schalabueg. 
(Late  IGth  Centuey.) 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

RENAISSANCE    AUCHITECTURE     IN    GREAT    BRITAIN,    SPAIN,    AND 
PORTUGAL. 


ENGLAND. — CHRONOLOGICAL     SKETCH. 

IN  England,  as  in  France  and  Germany,  the  introduction 
of  the  Italian  Renaissance  was  not  accomplished 
without  a  period  of  transition.  The  architecture  of  this 
period  is  known  as  Elizabethan,  though  it  lasted  long  after 
Elizabeth's  reign.  Sometimes  it  is  called  Tudor  ;  but  it  is 
more  convenient  and  not  unusual  to  limit  the  term  Tudor 
to  the  latest  phase  of  English  Gothic. 

Probably  the  earliest  introduction  into  any  English  build- 
ing of  a  feature  derived  from  the  newly-revived  classic 
sources  is  in  the  tomb  of  Henry  YII.  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
The  gi'ille  inclosing  this  is  of  good,  though  late  Gothic 
design  ;  but  when  the  tomb  itself  came  to  be  set  up,  for 
which  a  contract  was  made  with  Torregiano  in  1512,  it  was 
Italian  in  its  details.  The  earliest  examples  of  Renaissance 
features  actually  built  into  a  structure,  so  far  as  we  are 
aware,  is  in  the  terra-cotta  ornamentation  of  Layer  Marney 
House  in  Essex,  which  it  is  certain  was  erected  prior  to 
1525.     It  is  however  long — surprisingly  long — after  this 


ENGLAND.  215 

period  before  we  come  upon  the  traces  of  a  general  use  of 
Renaissance  details.  In  fact,  up  to  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  (1;")58)  they  appear  to  have  been  little  employed. 
It  is  however  said  that  early  in  her  reign  the  treatises 
on  Renaissance  architecture  of  Philibert  de  I'Orme  and 
Lomazzo  were  ti'anslated  from  Italian  into  English,  and  in 
15G3  John  Shute  published  a  book  on  Italian  architecture. 

John  of  Padua,  an  Italian  architect,  was  brought  to  this 
country  by  Henry  VIII.  and  practised  here  ;  and  Theodore 
Havenius  of  Cleves  was  employed  as  architect  in  the 
buildings  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge  (15G5-ir)74).  These 
two  foreigners  undoubtedly  played  an  important  part 
in  a  change  of  taste  which,  though  not  general  so  eaily, 
certainly  did  commence  before  Elizabeth's  death  in  1G03. 

At  the  two  universities,  and  in  many  localities  through- 
out England,  new  buildings  and  enlargements  of  old  ones 
were  carried  out  during  the  long  and  prosperous  reign  of 
Elizabeth  ;  and  the  style  in  which  they  were  built  will  be 
found  to  have  admitted  of  very  great  latitude.  "Wheie 
the  intention  was  to  obtain  an  effect  of  dignity  or  state, 
the  classic  principles  of  composition  were  more  or  less 
followed.  The  buildings  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge, 
Longleat,  built  between  1567  and  1579  by  John  of  Padua, 
WooUaton,  built  about  1580  by  Smithson,  and  Burleigh 
(built  1577),  may  be  named  as  instances  of  this.  On  the 
other  hand  where  a  manorial  or  only  a  domestic  character 
was  desired,  the  main  lines  of  the  building  are  Gothic,  but 
the  details,  in  either  case,  are  partly  Gothic  and  partly 
modified  Renaissance.  This  description  will  apply  to  such 
buildings  as  Knowle,  Penshurst,  Hardwick,  Hatfield, 
Bramshill,  or  Holland  House  (Fig.  81).  In  the  intro- 
ductory chapter  some  account  has  been  given,  in  general 
terms,  of   the  features  familiar  to  most  and  endeared  to 


/MW^WWMWH    \u 


ENGLAND.  217 

many,  which  mark  these  peculiarly  English  piles  of  build- 
ings ;  those  remarks  may  be  appropriately  continued 
here. 

The  hall  of  Gothic  houses  was  still  retained,  but  only  as 
one  of  a  series  of  fine  apartments.  In  many  cases  English 
mansions  had  no  internal  quadrangle,  and  are  built  as  large 
solid  blocks  with  boldly  projecting  wings.  They  are  often 
of  three  storeys  in  height,  the  roofs  are  frequently  of  flat 
pitch,  and  in  that  case  are  hidden  behind  a  parapet  which  is 
sometimes  of  fantastic  design.  Where  the  roofs  are  steeper 
and  not  concealed  the  gables  are  frequently  of  broken  out- 
line. Windows  are  usually  very  large,  and  with  mullions 
and  transomes,  and  it  is  to  these  large  openings  that  Eliza- 
bethan interiors  owe  their  bright  and  picturesque  effects. 
Entrances  are  generally  adorned  with  some  classic  or  semi- 
classic  features,  often,  however,  much  altered  from  their 
original  model ;  here  balustrades,  ornamental  recesses, 
stone  staircases,  and  similar  formal  surroundings  aie 
commonly  found,  and  are  generally  arranged  with  excellent 
judgment,  though  often  quaint  in  design. 

"  This  style  is  characterised  by  a  somewhat  grotesque 
application  of  the  ancient  orders  and  ornaments,  by  large 
and  picturesquely-formed  masses,  spacious  staircases,  broad 
terraces,  galleries  of  great  length  (at  times  100  feet  long)> 
ciders  placed  on  orders,  pyramidal  gables  formed  of  scroll- 
work often  pierced,  large  windows  divided  by  mullions  and 
transomes,  bay  windows,  pierced  parapets,  angle  turrets, 
and  a  love  of  arcades.  Tlie  principal  features  in  the  orna- 
ment are  pierced  scroll-work,  strap-work,  and  prismatic 
rustication,  combined  with  boldly-carved  foliage  (usually 
conventional)  and  roughly-formed  figures." — si.  d.  w. 

Interiors  are  bright  and  with  ample  space ;  very  richly 
ornamented  plaster  ceilings    are    common ;    the  walls   of 


218  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

main  rooms  are  often  lined  with  wainscot  panelling,  and 
noble  oak  staircases  are  frequent. 

In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  our  firi-t  Ptenaissance  architect 
of  mark,  Inigo  Jones  (1572-1652)  became  known.  He  was 
a  man  of  taste  and  genius,  and  had  studied  in  Italy.  He 
executed  many  works,  the  designs  for  which  were  more  or 
less  in  the  style  of  Palladio.  These  include  the  addition 
of  a  portico  to  the  (then  Gothic)  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's, 
and  a  magnificent  design  for  a  palace  which  Charles  I. 
desired  to  build  at  Whitehall.  A  fragment  of  this  build- 
ing, now  known  as  the  Chapel  P^oyal  Whitehall,  was 
erected,  and  small  though  it  be,  has  done  much  by 
its  conspicuous  position  and  great  beauty,  to  keep  up  a 
respect  for  Inigo  Jones's  undoubted  high  attainments  as 
an  artist. 

More  fortunate  than  Inigo  Jones,  Christopher  Wren 
(1632 — 172.3)  had  just  attained  a  high  position  as  a  young 
man  of  science,  skill,  and  cultivation,  and  as  the  architect 
of  the  Sheldonian  Theatre  at  Oxford,  when  in  1666  the 
great  fii"e  of  London  destroyed  the  Metropolitan  Cathedral 
the  parochial  churches,  the  Ptoyal  Exchange,  the  Companies' 
Halls,  and  an  immense  mass  of  private  property  in 
London,  and  created  an  opportunity  which  made  great 
demands  iipon  the  energy,  skill,  and  fertility  of  design 
of  the  architect  who  might  attempt  to  grasp  it.  Fortunately, 
Wren  was  equal  to  the  occasion,  and  he  has  endowed 
London  with  a  Cathedral  which  takes  rank  among  the 
very  foremost  Renaissance  buildings  in  Europe,  as  well 
as  a  magnificent  series  of  parochial  churches,  and  other 
public  buildings.  It  is  not  pretended  that  his  works  are 
free  from  defects,  but  there  can  be  no  question  that  ad- 
mitting anything  which  can  be  truly  said  against  them, 
they  are  works  of  artistic  genius,  full  of  fresh  and  original 


ENGLAND.  219 

design,  and  exhibiting  rare  sagacity  in  their  practical 
contrivance  and  construction. 

St.  Paul's  stands  second  only  to  St.  Peter's  as  a  great 
domical  cathedral  of  Renaissance  architecture.  It  falls  far 
short  of  its  great  rival  in  actual  size  and  internal  effect, 
and  is  all  but  entirely  devoid  of  that  decoration  in  which 
St.  Peter's  is  so  rich.  On  the  other  hand,  the  exterior  of 
St.  Paul's  (Fig.  82)  is  far  finer,  and  as  the  English  cathedral 
had  the  good  fortune  to  be  erected  entirely  from  the  plans 
and  under  the  supervision  of  one  architect,  it  is  a  building 
consistent  with  itself  throughout,  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  more  than  can  be  said  of  St.  Peter's. 

The  plan  of  St.  Paul's  is  a  Latin  cross,  with  well 
marked  transepts,  a  large  portico,  and  two  towers  at  the 
western  entrance  ;  an  apse  of  small  size  forms  the  end  of 
the  eastern  arm,  and  of  each  of  the  transepts ;  a  great 
dome  covers  the  crossing  ;  the  cathedral  has  a  crypt  raising 
the  main  floor  considerably,  and  its  side  walls  are  carried 
high  above  the  aisle  roofs  so  as  to  hide  the  clerestory 
windows  from  sight. 

The  dome  is  very  cleverly  planted  on  eight  piers  instead 
of  four  at  the  crossing,  and  is  a  triple  structure ;  for 
between  the  dome  seen  from  within,  and  the  much  higher 
dome  seen  from  without,  a  strong  cone  of  brickwork  rises 
which  bears  the  weight  of  the  stone  lantern  and  ball  and 
cross  that  surmount  the  whole.  The  skill  with  which  the 
dome  is  made  the  central  feature  of  a  pyramidal  composi- 
tion whatever  be  the  point  of  view,  the  great  beauty  of 
the  circular  colonnade  immediately  below  the  dome,  the 
elegant  outline  of  the  western  towers,  and  the  unusual 
but  successful  distribution  of  the  great  portico,  are  among 
the  most  noteworthy  elements  which  go  to  make  up  the 
charm  of  this  very  successful  exterior. 


Fid.  82.— St.  Pavl's  Cathedral,  Lo>n>ON.     (1675—1710.; 


ENGLAND.  221 

Wren  may  be  said  to  have  introduced  to  Eenaissance 
architecture  the  tower  and  spire,  for  though  many  examples 
occur  in  Spain,  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  he  was 
before  the  architects  of  that  country  in  his  employment  of 
that  feature.  He  has  enriched  the  City  of  London  with 
a  large  number  of  steeples,  which  are  Gothic  so  far  as  their 
general  idea  goes,  but  thoroughly  classic  in  details,  and 
all  more  or  less  distinctive.  The  most  famous  of  these  is 
the  one  belonging  to  Bow  Church ;  others  of  note  belong 
to  St.  Clement  Danes  and  St.  Bride,  Fleet  Street. 

The  interiors  of  some  of  these  churches,  as  for  example 
St.  Stephen,  Walbrook,  St.  Andrew,  Holborn,  and  St. 
James,  Piccadilly,  are  excellent  both  for  their  good  design 
and  artistic  treatment,  and  for  their  being  well  contrived 
and  arranged  for  the  special  purposes  they  were  intended 
to  fill. 

Wren's  secular  works  were  considerable.  The  Sheldon- 
ian  Theatre  at  Oxford,  the  library  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  the  theatre  of  the  College  of  Physicians 
London  (long  since  disused),  are  a  group  of  special  build- 
ings each  of  which  was  undoubtedly  a  remarkable  and 
successful  work.  Chelsea  and  Greenwich  hospitals  are  note- 
worthy as  among  the  first  specimens  of  those  great  build- 
ings for  public  purposes  in  which  England  is  now  so  rich, 
and  which  to  a  certain  extent  replace  the  monastic  estab- 
lishments of  the  middle  ages.  At  Chelsea  the  building  is 
simple  and  dignified.  Without  lavish  outlay,  or  the  use 
of  expensive  materials,  much  ornament,  or  any  exti-aneous 
features,  an  artistic  and  telling  effect  has  been  produced, 
such  as  few  hospitals  or  asylums  since  built  have  equalled. 
Greenwich  takes  a  higher  level,  and  though  Wren's  Avork 
had  the  disadvantage  of  having  to  be  accommodated  to 
buildings  already  erected  by  another  architect,  this  building, 


222  KENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

with  its  twin  domes,  its  rich  outline,  and  its  noble  and 
dignified  masses,  will  always  I'eflect  honour  upon  its 
designer.  The  view  of  Greenwich  hospital  from  the  river 
may  fairly  be  said  to  be  unique  for  beauty  and  picturesque - 
ness.  At  Greenwich,  too,  we  meet  with  some  of  that  skill 
in  associating  buildings  and  open  spaces  together  which  is 
so  much  more  common  in  France  than  in  this  country,  and 
by  the  exercise  of  which  the  architecture  of  a  good  building 
can  be  in  so  many  ways  set  off. 

Wren,  like  Inigo  Jones,  has  left  behind  him  a  great 
unexecuted  design  which  in  many  respects  is  more  noble 
than  anything  that  he  actually  built.  This  is  his  earlier 
design  for  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  which  he  planned  as  a 
Greek  cross,  with  an  ampler  dome  than  the  present 
cathedral  possesses,  but  not  so  lofty.  A  large  model 
of  this  design  exists.  Had  it  been  carried  out  the 
exterior  of  the  building  would  probably  not  have  ap- 
peared so  commanding,  perhaps  not  so  graceful,  as  it 
actually  is  ;  but  the  interior  would  have  surpassed  all  the 
churches  of  the  style  in  Europe,  both  by  the  grandeur  of 
the  vast  arched  space  under  the  dome  and  by  the  intricacy 
and  beavity  of  the  various  vistas  and  combinations  of 
features,  for  which  its  admirably-designed  plan  makes 
provision. 

Wren  had  retired  from  practice  before  his  death  in  1723. 
His  immediate  successors  were  Hawksmoor,  whose  works 
were  heavy  and  uninteresting,  and  Sir  James  Vanbrugh. 
Vanbrugh  was  a  man  of  genius  and  has  a  style  of  his  own, 
"bold,  original,  and  pictorial."  His  greatest  and  best 
work  is  Blenheim,  in  Oxfordshire,  built  for  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough.  This  fine  mansion,  equal  to  any  French 
chateau  in  extent  and  magnificence,  is  planned  with  much 
dignity.     The  entrance  front  looks  towards  a  large  space, 


ENGLAND.  223 

inclosed  right  and  left  by  low  buildings,  wliicli  prolong 
the  wings  of  the  main  block.  The  angles  of  the  wings 
and  the  centre  are  masked  by  two  colonnades  of  quadrant 
shape,  and  the  central  entrance  with  lofty  columns  which 
form  a  grand  portico,  is  a  noble  composition. 

The  three  garden  fronts  of  Blenheim  are  all  fine,  and 
there  is  a  magnificent  entrance  hall,  but  the  most  successful 
part  of  the  interior  is  the  library,  a  long  and  lofty  gallery, 
occupying  the  entire  flank  of  the  house  and  treated  with 
the  most  picturesque  variety  both  of  plan  and  ornament. 

Yanbrugh  also  built  Castle  Howard,  Grimesthorpe, 
Wentworth,  King's  Weston,  as  well  as  many  other  country 
mansions  of  more  moderate  size. 

Campbell,  Kent,  and  Gibbs  are  the  best  known  names 
next  in  succession.  Of  these  Campbell  is  most  famous  as 
an  author,  but  Gibbs  (1674-1754)  is  the  architect  of  two 
prominent  London  churches — St.  Martin's  and  St.  Mary 
le  Strand,  in  which  the  general  traditions  of  "Wren's 
manner  are  ably  followed.  He  was  the  architect  of  the 
Eadcliffe  Library  at  Oxford.  Kent  (1G84-1748)  was  the 
architect  of  Holkham,  the  Treasury  Buildings,  and  the 
Horse  Guards.  He  was  associated  with  the  Earl  of 
Burlington,  who  acqviired  a  high  reputation  as  an  amateur 
architect,  which  the  design  of  Burlington  House  (now  re- 
modelled for  the  Eoyal  Academy),  went  far  to  justify. 
Probably  the  technical  part  of  this  and  other  designs  was 
supplied  by  Kent. 

Sir  W^illiam  Chambers  (1726-1796)  was  the  architect 
of  Somerset  House,  a  building  of  no  small  merit,  notwith- 
standing that  it  is  tame  and  very  bare  of  sculpture. 
This  building  is  remarkable  as  one  of  the  few  in  London 
in  which  the  Italian  feature  of  an  interior  quadrangle  is 
attempted  to  be  reproduced.     Chambers  wrote  a  treatise 


224  EENAISSAXCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

which  has  become  a  general  text-book  of  revived  classical 
architecture  for  English  students.  Cotemporary  with  him 
were  the  brothers  John  and  Robert  Adam,  who  built 
much,  and  began  to  introduce  a  severity  of  treatment  and 
a  fineness  of  detail  which  correspond  to  some  extent  to 
the  French  style  of  Louis  XVI.  The  interior  decorations 
in  plaster  by  these  architects  are  of  great  elegance  and 
often  found  in  old  houses  in  London,  as  in  Hanover 
Square,  on  the  Adelphi  Terrace,  and  elsewhere.  The 
list  of  the  eighteenth  century  architects  closes  with  the 
names  of  Sir  Robert  Taylor  and  the  two  Dances,  one  of 
whom  built  the  Mansion  House  and  the  other  l^ewgate ; 
and  Stuart,  who  built  several  country  mansions,  but  who 
is  best  known  for  the  magnificent  work  on  the  antiquities 
of  Athens,  which  he  and  Revett  published  together  in 
1762,  and  which  went  far  to  create  a  revolution  in  public 
taste ;  for  before  the  close  of  the  century  there  was 
a  general  cry  for  making  every  building  and  every 
ornamental  detail  purely  and  solely  Greek. 

The  architects  above  named,  and  others  of  less  note  were 
much  employed  during  the  eighte?nth  century  in  the 
erection  of  large  country  houses  of  Italian,  usually  Palla- 
dian  design,  many  of  them  extremely  incongruous  and 
unsatisfactory.  Here  and  there  a  design  better  than  the 
average  was  obtained,  but  as  a  rule  these  stately  but  cold 
buildings  are  very  far  inferior  to  the  picturesque  and 
home-like  manors  and  mansions  built  during  the  reigns 
of  Elizabeth  and  James  I. 

It  is  worth  notice  that  the  picturesque  element,  inhei'ited 
from  the  Gothic  architecture  of  the  middle  ages,  which 
before  the  eighteenth  century  had  completely  vanished 
from  our  public  buildings,  and  the  mansions  of  the  wealthy 
did  not  entirely  die  out  of  works  executed  in  remote  places. 


ENGLAND, 


225 


In  the  half  -  timbered  manors  and  farmhouses  which 
abound  in  Lancashire,  Cheshire,  Shropshire,  and  Stafford- 
shire, and  in  other  minor  works,  we  always  find  a  tinge, 


Fig.  83. — Houses  at  Chestkr.    (IUih  Ceniury.) 

sometimes  a  very  full  colouring,  of  the  picturesque  and  the 
irregular  ;  the  gables  are  sharp,  upper  storeys  overhang,  and 
G  A  Q 


226  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

the  treatment  of  the  timbers  is  thoroughly  Gothic  (Fig.  82) ; 
so  are  the  mouldings,  transomes  and  mullions  to  the  win- 
dows, and  barge  boards  to  the  roofs.  In  the  reign  of  James  I. 
a  mode  of  enriching  the  exteriors  of  dwelling-houses,  as 
well  as  their  ceilings,  chimney-pieces,  &c.,  with  ornaments 
modelled  in  plaster  came  in,  and  though  the  remain- 
ing specimens  are  from  year  to  year  disappearing,  yet  in 
some  old  towns  (e.g.  in  Ipswich)  examples  of  this  sort  of 
treatment  (known  as  Jacobean)  still  linger. 

In  Queen  Anne's  reign  a  semi-Gothic  version  of  Renais- 
sance architecture  was  practised,  to  which  great  attention 
has  been  directed  in  the  present  day.  The  Queen  Anne 
style  is  usually  carried  out  in  brickwork,  executed  in  red 
bricks  and  often  most  admirable  in  its  workmanship. 
Pilasters,  coinices,  and  panels  are  executed  in  cut  bricks, 
and  for  arches,  niches,  and  window  heads  very  finely 
jointed  bricks  are  employed.  The  details  are  usually 
Renaissance,  but  of  debased  character;  a  crowning  cornice 
of  considerable  projection  under  a  high-pitched  hipped 
roof  (i.e.  one  sloping  back  every  way  like  a  truncated 
pyramid)  is  commonly  employed;  so  also  are  gables  of 
broken  outline.  Dormer  windows  rich  and  picturesque,  and 
high  brick  chimneys  are  also  employed;  so  are  bow  windows, 
often  carried  on  concave  corbels  of  a  clumsy  form.  Promi- 
nence is  given  in  this  style  to  the  joiner's  work;  the 
windows,  which  are  usually  sash  windows,  are  heavily 
moulded  and  divided  into  small  squares  by  wooded  sash  bars. 
The  doors  have  heavily  moulded  panels,  and  are  often  sur- 
mounted by  pediments  carried  by  carved  brackets  or  by 
pilasters  ;  in  the  interiors  the  woodwork  of  staircases 
such  as  the  balusters^  newel  posts,  and  handrails  is  treated 
in  a  vti-y  effective  and  well  considered  way,  the  greater 
part  of  the  work  being  turned  on  the  lathe  and  enriched 


SCOTLAND.  227 

with  mouldings  extremely  well  designed  for  execution  in 
that  manner.  By  this  style  and  the  modifications  of  it 
which  were  more  or  less  practised  till  they  finally  died 
out,  the  traditional  picturesqueness  of  English  architecture 
which  it  had  inherited  from  the  middle  ages  was  kept 
alive,  so  that  it  has  been  handed  down,  in  certain  localities 
almost,  if  not  quite,  to  the  present  century. 

SCOTLAND, 

The  architecture  of  Scotland  during  the  sixteenth  and 
succeeding  centuries  possesses  exceptional  interest.  It 
was  the  case  here,  as  it  had  been  in  England,  that  the  most 
important  buildings  of  the  time  were  domestic;  the  erection 
of  churches  and  monasteries  had  ceased. 

The  castles  and  semi-fortified  houses  of  Scotland  form  a 
group  apart,  possessing  strongly-marked  and  well-defined 
character ;  they  are  designed  in  a  mixed  style  in  which  the 
Gothic  elements  predominated  over  the  classic  ones.  But 
the  Scottish  domestic  Gothic,  from  which  the  new  style 
was  partly  derived,  had  borne  little  or  no  resemblance  to 
the  florid  Tudor  of  England.  It  was  the  severe  and  simple 
architecture  of  strongholds  built  with  stubborn  materials, 
and  on  rocky  sites,  where  there  was  little  inducement  to 
indulge  in  decoration.  Dunstaffnage  or  Kilchurn  Castles 
may  be  referred  to  as  examples  of  these  plain,  gloomy 
keeps  with  their  stepped  gables,  small  loops  for  windows, 
and  sometimes  angle  turrets. 

The  classic  elements  of  the  style  were  not  drawn  (as  had 
been  the  case  in  England)  direct  from  Italy,  but  came  from 
France.  The  Scotch,  during  their  long  struggles  with  the 
English,  became  intimately  allied  with  the  French,  and  it 
is  therefore  not  surprising  that  Scottish  Baronial  architec- 
ture should   I'esemble  the    early   Renaissance   of   French 

Q  2 


228  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

chjiteaux  very  closely.  The  hardness  of  the  stone  in  which 
the  Scotch  masons  wrought  forbade  their  attempting  the 
extremely  delicate  detail  of  the  Francois  I.  ornament, 
executed  as  it  is  in  fine,  easily-worked  stone  of  smooth  tex- 
ture ;  and  the  difference  in  the  climate  of  the  two  counti'ies 
justified  in  Scotland  a  boldness  which  would  have  appeared 
exaggerated  and  extreme  in  France.  Accordingly  the  style 
in  passing  from  one  country  to  the  other  has  changed  its 
details  to  no  inconsiderable  extent. 

Many  castles  were  erected  in  the  sixteenth  and  following 
centuries  in  Scotland,  or  were  enlarged  and  altered  ;  the 
most  characteristic  features  in  almost  all  of  them  are  short 
round  angle  turrets,  thrown  out  upon  bold  corbellings  near 
the  upper  part  of  towers  and  other  square  masses.  These 
are  often  capped  by  pointed  roofs ;  and  the  corbels  which 
carry  them,  and  which  are  always  of  bold,  vigorous  cha- 
racter, are  frequently  enriched  by  a  kind  of  cable  orna- 
ment, which  is  very  distinctive.  Towers  of  circular  plan, 
like  bastions,  and  projecting  from  the  general  line  of  the 
walls,  or  at  the  angles,  constantly  occur.  They  are  fre- 
quently crowned  by  conical  roofs,  but  sometimes  (as  at 
Fyvie  Castle)  they  are  made  square  near  the  top  by  means 
of  a  series  of  corbels,  and  finished  with  gables  or  otherwise. 
Parapets  are  in  general  use,  and  are  almost  always  battle- 
mented,  Koofs,  when  visible,  are  of  steep  pitch,  and  their 
gables  are  almost  always  of  stepped  outline,  while  dormer 
windows,  frequently  of  fantastic  form,  are  not  infrequent. 
Chimneys  are  prominent  and  lofty.  Windows  are  square- 
headed,  and,  as  a  rule,  small  ;  sometimes  they  retain  the 
Gothic  mullions  and  transom,  but  in  many  cases  these 
features  are  absent.  Doorways  are  generally  arched,  and 
not  often  highly  ornamented. 

Cawdor    Castle,     Glamis    Castle,    Fyvie    Castle,    Castle 


SPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL. 


'^'''.l 


Fraser,  the  old  portions  of  Dunrobin  Castle,  Tyninghame 
House,  the  extremely  picturesque  palace  at  Falkland,  and 
a  considerable  part  of  Stirling  Castle,  may  be  all  quoted 
as  good  specimens  of  this  thoroughly  national  style,  but 
it  would  be  easy  to  name  two  or  three  times  as  many 
buildings  nearly,  if  not  quite,  equal  to  these  in  archi- 
tectural merit. 

Heriot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh,  may  be  quoted  (with  part 
of  Holyrood  Palace)  as  showing  the  style  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Heriot's  Hospital  was  built  between  the 
years  1G28  and  IGGO.  It  is  built  round  a  great  quad- 
rangle, and  has  square  towers  at  the  four  corners,  each 
relieved  by  small  corbelled  angle  turrets.  The  enti'ance 
displays  columns  and  an  entablature  of  debased  but  not 
unpleasing  Renaissance  architecture,  and  the  building 
altogether  resembles  an  English  Elizabethan  or  Jacobean 
building  to  a  greater  extent  than  most  Scottish  designs. 

When  this  picturesque  style,  which  appears  indeed  to 
have  retained  its  hold  for  long,  at  last  died  out,  very  little 
of  any  artistic  value  was  substituted  for  it.  Late  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  it  is  true,  the  Bi'others  Adam  erected 
public  buildings  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  and  carried 
out  various  works  of  importance  in  a  classic  style  which 
has  certainly  some  claim  to  respect ;  but  if  correct  it  was 
tame  and  uninteresting,  and  a  poor  exchange  for  the 
vigorous  vitality  which  breathes  in  the  works  of  the 
architects  of  the  early  Renaissance  in  Scotland. 

SPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL. 

In  the  Spanish  peninsula,  Renaissance  architecture  ran 
through  three  phases,  very  strongly  distinguished  from 
one  another,  each  being  marked  by  peculiarities  of  more 
than  ordinary  prominence.     The  early  stage,  to  which  the 


230  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

Spaniards  give  the  name  of  Plateresco,  exhibits  the  same 
sort  of  fusion  of  Gothic  with  classic  which  we  find  in 
France  and  Scotland.  The  masses  are  often  simple,  but 
the  individual  features  are  overladen  with  an  extravagant 
amount  of  ornament,  and,  as  in  France,  many  things  which 
are  essentially  Gothic,  such  as  pinnacles,  gargoyles,  and 
parapets,  are  retained.  The  Renaissance  style  was  intro- 
duced at  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  a 
very  considerable  number  of  buildings  to  which  the  de- 
scription given  above  will  apply  were  erected  prior  to 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth.  Among  these  may  be  enume- 
rated the  cathedral  at  Granada,  the  Hospital  of  Santa  Cruz 
at  Toledo  (1504-1514),  the  dome  of  Burgos  Cathedral 
(1567),  the  Cathedral  of  Malaga,  San  Juan  della  Penitencia 
at  Toledo  (1511),  the  facade  of  the  Alcazar  at  Toledo 
(1548),  the  Town  Hall  (1551),  and  Casa  Zaporta  (1560)  at 
Zarragoza,  and  the  Town  Hall  of  Seville  (1559). 

A  great  number  of  tombs,  staircases,  doorways,  and 
other  smaller  single  features,  executed  during  this  period 
from  the  designs  of  good  artists,  are  to  be  found  scattered 
through  the  country.  "  These  Renaissance  monuments 
exhibit  an  extraordinary  degree  of  variety  in  their 
ornaments,  which  are  of  the  most  fantastic  nature  ;  an 
exuberant  fancy  would  seem  to  have  sought  a  vent,  especi- 
ally in  the  sculptured  ornament  of  the  style,  which  though 
at  times  crowded,  overladen,  and  we  must  add  disfigured 
by  the  most  grotesque  ideas,  is  very  striking  for  its 
originality  and  excellent  workmanship." —  (m.d.w. ) 

The  second  phase  of  Spanish  architecture  was  marked 
by  a  plain  and  simple  dignity,  equally  in  contrast  with  the 
Plateresco  which  had  preceded  it  and  with  the  extravagant 
style  to  which  it  at  length  gave  place.  The  earliest 
archiect  who  introduced  into  Spain  an  architectural  style. 


Fuj.  84.  -The  Alcazar  at  Toi.edu.     (Beuux  1568.) 


232  RENAISSANCE    ARCHITECTURE. 

founded  on  the  best  examples  of  Italy,  was  Juan  Baptista 
de  Toledo.  He  in  the  year  1563  commenced  the  Escurial 
Palace — the  Versailles  of  Spain  ;  but  the  principal  part 
of  the  building  was  erected  by  his  more  celebrated  pupil, 
Juan  de  Herrera,  who  carried  on  the  works  dui-ing  the 
years  from  1567  to  1579.  This  building,  one  of  the  most 
extensive  palaces  in  Europe,  is  noble  in  its  external 
aspect  from  a  distance,  thanks  to  its  great  extent,  its  fine 
central  dome,  and  its  many  towers,  but  it  is  disappointing 
when  approached.  Of  the  interior  the  most  noteworthy 
feature  is  a  magnificently  decorated  church,  of  great  size 
and  unusual  arrangement;  and  this  dignified  central  featui'e 
has  raised  the  Escurial,  in  spite  of  many  faults,  to  the 
position  of  the  most  famous  and  probably  most  deservedly 
admired  among  the  great  Renaissance  palaces  of  Europe. 

By  the  same  architect  numerous  buildings  were  erected, 
among  others  the  beautiful,  if  somewhat  cold,  arcaded 
interior  of  the  Alcazar  of  Toledo  (Fig.  84),  which  may  be 
taken  as  a  fair  specimen  of  the  noble  qualities  to  be  found 
in  his  dignified  and  comparatively  simple  designs.  About 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  Charles  V.  erected  his 
palace  at  Granada  ;  but  here  the  architecture  is  strongly 
coloured  by  Italian  or  French  examples,  and  much  of 
the  building  resembles  Perrault's  work  at  the  Louvre 
very  closely.  Herrera  and  his  school  were  probably  too 
severe  in  taste  to  suit  the  fancy  of  their  countrymen,  for 
Spanish  architecture  in  the  eighteenth  century  fell  a  victim 
to  debased  forms  and  a  fantastic  and  exaggerated  style 
of  ornament.  Churriguera  was  the  architect  who  has  the 
credit  of  having  introduced  this  unfortunate  third  manner, 
and  has  lent  it  his  name.  For  a  time  "  Churriguerismo  " 
found  general  acceptance,  and  the  century  closed  under  its 
influence. 


SPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL. 


233 


We  must  not  pass  over  the  excellent  and  varied  Renais- 
sance towers  and  steeples  of  Spain  in  silence.  They  are 
not  unlike  Wren's  spires  in  general  idea  ;  they  are  to  be 
met  with  in  many  parts  of  the  country  attached  to  the 
churches,  and  their  variety  and  picturesqueness  increase 
the  claim  of  Spanish  architecture  to  our  respect. 

The  one  Renaissance  building  in  Portugal  which  has 
been  much  illustrated,  and  is  spoken  of  in  high  terms, 
is  the  Convent  at  Mafra,  a  building  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  of  great  extent  and  picuresque  effect.  Great  skill 
is  shown  in  dealing  with  the  unwieldy  bulk  of  an  over- 
grown establishment  which  does  not  yield  even  to  the 
Escurial  in  point  of  extent.  We  are,  however,  up  to  the 
present  time  without  the  means  of  forming  an  opinion 
upon  the  nature  and  value  of  the  architecture  of  Portugal 
as  a  whole. 


INDEX. 


See  also  Contekts  at  beginning. 


Adam,  John  and  Robeet,  223. 
Alberti,  Architect,  167. 
Amiens  Cathedral,  7t),  78. 
Andernach,  Church  at,  96. 
Anne,  Queen,  Style  of,  225. 
Arnstein  Abbey,  94. 

Baptista,  Architect,  232. 
Batalha,  Monastery  at,  142,  153. 
Beauvais  Cathedral,  Interior, S6. 
Belgium  and  Netherlands,  Gothic,  87, 

— ■ — Renaissance,  206. 

Bernini,  Architect,  175,  181,  203. 

Blenheim,  221. 

Blois,  Chateau  of,  194. 

Blois,  Capital  from  St.  Nicholas,  84. 

Bourges,  House  of  Jaques  Coeur,  15. 

Bramante,  Architect,  168,  174,  180. 

Brunelleschi,  Architect,  166,  120. 

Buttresses,  32. 

Caex,  Saint  Pierre  at,  37. 
Cambridge,.  King's  College,  63. 
Can^paniles  in  Italy,  128. 
Capitals,  Gothic,  43. 
Certosa,near  Vavm, frontispiece,  1?3. 
Chambers,  Architect,  222. 
Chambord,  Chateau  of,  194. 
Chartres,  Stained  glass  at,  65,  60. 
Chester,  Old  Houses  at,  38,  224. 
Churriguera,  Architect,  230. 
Colmar,  Window  at,  206. 
Cologne  Cathedral,  97,  104. 
(/olumns  and  Piers,  40. 
Cortona,  Pietro  da.  Architect,  198. 
Cremona,  Palace  at,  117. 

Dantzic,  Zeughaus  at,  203. 
De  Caumont;  Alecedaire,  71. 


Decorated  style  of  Architecture,  24. 
Delorme,  Architect,  200,  214. 
Domestic  Buildings,  Gothic,  14. 

Eablt  English  Architecture,  24. 
Eltham  Palace,  Eoof  of,  53. 
England,  Gothic  Architecture  in,  21. 
Renaissance  in,  213. 

Floeence,  Cathedral  at,  121. 

Pandolfini  Palace,  1 70, 137. 

Riccardi  Palace,  167. 

Strozzi  Palace,  169. 

Fontevrault,  Church  at,  70. 
France,  Gothic  Architecture  in,  69. 

Renaissance  in,  193. 

Francis  the  First  of  France,  193. 
Friburg  Cathedral,  98. 

Gables  in  Gothic  Architecture,  36. 
Germany,  Gotliic  Architecture  in,  93. 

Renaissance,  209. 

Ghent,  Tower  at,  90. 

Gibbs,  Architect,  222. 

Giotto's  Campanile  at  Florence,  120. 

Gothic,  The  word,  5. 

Goujon,  Jean,  Sculptor,  198. 

Haddon  Hall,  1  . 
Havenius  of  Cleves,  Architect,  214. 
Hawksmoor,  Architect,  221. 
Heidelberg,  Castle  of,  156,  209. 
Herrera,  Juan  de.  Architect,  217. 
Holland  House,  215. 

Itai.t,  Gothic  Architecture  in,  112. 
Renaissance  in,  165. 

John  of  Padua,  Architect,  214. 
Jones,  Inigo,  Architect,  217. 


236 


KKST.Jrr}iifecf,222. 
Kutttnberg,  St.  Barbara  at,  99. 

Lescot,  Architect,  198. 
Leyden,  Council-house  at,  210. 
Ijichfield  Cathedral,  AVest  Door,  5. 
Lincoln  Cathedral,  General  view,  35. 
Lippi  Annibale,  Architect,  192. 
Lisieux,  Old  Houses  at,  41. 
Ix)ehes,  Doorway  at,  72. 
London,  St.  Paul's  Catliedi-al,218. 

Madeeno,  Architect,  175,  181. 
Mafra,  Convent  at,  232. 
'Mansard,  Architect,  160. 
Michelangelo  as  an  Architect,  170, 174. 
Michelozzo,  Architect,  107. 
Middleburg,  Town  Hall  at,  89. 
Milan  Cathedral,  115. 
Misereres  in  Wells  Cathedial,  68,  92. 
Mouldings,  Gothic,  62. 

NuEEMBEEG,  St.  Sebald's  at,  109. 

Oakham,  Decorated  Spire  of,  60. 
Ogee-shaped  arch,  129. 
Oppenheim,  St.  Catherine  at,  107. 
Orleans,  Capital  from  house  at,  197. 
Orleans,  Window  at,  196. 

Pa  VIA,  Certosa,  near,  114,  188. 
Palladio,  Architect,  172,  184,  187. 
Paris,  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame.  74. 

Hotel  des  Invalides  at.  2i>5. 

Louvre,  Capital  from,  202. 

Louvre,  Pavilion  Eichelieu, 199. 

Pantheon  at,  204. 

Tuileries,  by  Delorme,  200. 

Perpendicular  Architecture,  25. 
Peruzzi,  Architect,  181. 
Peterborough  Cathedral,  Plan,  6. 
Pisano,  Nicolo,  Sculjitor,  120. 
Plateresco,  Spanish,  230. 
Principles  of  Gothic  Design,  146. 

Eaphael  as  an  Architect,  170. 
Renaissance  Architecture,  154. 
Regensbnrg  (Ratisbon),  AVell  at,  20. 
Rheims  Cathedral,  Piers,  80. 
Rome,    Monument    in    Santa    Maria 
del  Popolo,  179. 


Rome,  Palazzo  Giraud,  178, 180. 

St.  Peter's,  174,  177. 

Villa  Medici,  191. 

Saint  Gall  Manuscript,  The,  13. 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  Section,  7. 
Saint  lago  di  Compo.stella,  137. 
Sangallo,  Arcliitect,  181. 
Sausovino,  Architect,  178, 184. 
Scamozzi,  Architect,  184. 
Scotland,  Cawdor  Castle,  227. 

Dunrobin  Castle,  £i"8. 

Harlot's  Hospital,  228. 

Schalaburg,  Castle  of,  212. 

Schwartz-Rheindorff,  Church  at,  101. 

Serlio,  Architect,  198. 

Seville,  The  Giralda  at,  140. 

Siena  Cathedral,  123. 

Spain,  Gothic  Architecture  in,  137. 

Renais.sance  in,  228. 

Spires,  58. 
Stained  Glass,  64. 
Strassburg  Cathedral,  98. 

Thann,  Doorway  at,  106. 
Tivoli,  Window  from,  134. 
Toledo,  Alcazar  at,  232. 

Cathedral,  138. 

Towers  and  S])ires,  33. 
Tracery,  Venetian,  130. 
Tudor  Architecture,  25. 

Van  BnrGH,  Architect,  221. 

Venice,  182. 

Venice,  Church  of  Eedentore,  186. 

Ducal  Palace  at,  118. 

Palaces  on  Grand  Canal,  18. 

Vienna,  St.  Step  lieu  at,  98. 
Yignola,,  Architect,  172,  181,  182. 

Waebots,  Early  English  Spire,  59. 
Warwick  Castle,  Plan,  16. 
Wells  CatluHlral,  Nave,  9. 
Westminster  Abbey,  Plan,  11. 
Westminster  Abbey,  Carving,  67. 

Henry  VII.'s  Chapel,  57. 

Triforium,  49. 

Windows,  46,  47,  48,  50,  51. 
Window,  Itilian  Gothic,  134,  136. 
Worcester  Cathedral,  Choir,  9. 
AVren,  Sir  C.  Architect,  203, 217, 220. 


LOMJuN  :      K.    CLAY,    SONS,    AND   T.*YLOU. 


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The  following  Biographies  are  now  ready  : — 

ITALIAN  PAINTERS. 

LEONARDO  DA  VINCI.     By  Dr.  J.  Paul  Richter,  Aiithor  of  ''Die 

Mosaiken  von  Ravenna."    "With  16  Illustrations.    From  recent  researches. 
MICHELANGELO,       By    Charles    Clement,    Author   of    "  Michel- 

Ange,  Leonard  et  Raphael."     With  many  large  Engravings. 
RAPHAEL.     From  the  text   of  J.   D.    Passavant.      By  N.   D'Anvers, 

Author  of  "  An  Elementary  History  of  Art."     With  20  Engravings. 
TITIAN.     From  the  most  recent  researches.     By  Richard  Ford  Heath, 

M.A.,  Hertford  College,  Oxford.      With  16  Engravings. 
TINTORETTO.     From  investigations  at  Venice,     By  W.  RoscoE  Osler, 

Author  of  occasional  Essays  on  Art,      With  many  Engravings. 

GERMAN,  FLEMISH,  DUTCH,  &^c. 

HOLBEIN.     From  the  text  of  Dr.  A.  WoLTMANN.    By  Joseph  Cundall, 

Author  of  "  Life  and  Genius  of  Rembrandt,"     With  20  Engravings, 
THE    LITTLE    MASTERS    OF    GERMANY.     By  W.   B.   Scott, 

Author  of  "  Lectures  on  Fine  Arts."     With  16  Engravings. 
*^*  An  Edition  de  luxe,  containing   14  extra  plates  from  rare  engravings  in 
the  British  Mu-eum,  and  bound  in  Roxburgh  style,  may  be  had,  price  los.  6d. 
REMBRANDT.    From  the  text  of  C.  Vosmaer.    ByJ.  W.  Mollett,  B.A., 

Ofticier  de  I'lnstruction  Publique  (France).     With  16  Engravings. 
RUBENS.     From  recent  authorities.     By  C,  W,  Kett,   M.A.,    Hertford 

College,  Oxf;rd.      With  16  Engravings. 
VAN  DYCK  and  HALS.     From  recent  authorities.     By  Percy  R.  Head, 

Lincoln  College,  Oxford.     With  16  Engravings. 
FIGURE  PAINTERS  OF  HOLLAND.     By  Lord  Ronald  Gower, 

Trustee  of  National  Portrait  Gallery.      With  18  Engravings. 
VERNET&DELAROCHE.  From  Charles  Blanc.  By  J.  RuutzRees, 

Author  of  various  Essays  on  Art.     With  16  Engravings. 

ENGLISH  PAINTERS. 

HOGARTH.     From  recent  researches.     By  Austin  Dobson,    Author  of 

"Vignettes  in  Rhyme."     With  16  Illustrations. 
REYNOLDS.     From  the  most  recent  authorities.     By  F.  S.  PULLING,  MA. , 

Exeter  College,  Oxford.     With  16  Illustrations. 
TURNER.     From  recent  investigations.     By  Cosmo  Mon'KHouse,  Author 

of   "  Studies  of  Sir  E.  Land-;eer."     With  20  Engravings. 
LANDSEER.      A    Meaioir,    by   Frederick     G.    Stephens,    Author   of 

"Flemish  Relics,"  &c.      With  many  Illustrations. 


3 

The  Volumes  preparing  for  Early  Publication  are: — 

FRA  ANGELICO  and  the  EARLY  PAINTERS  of  FLORENCE. 

By  Catherine  Phillimore.     With  i6  Illustrations. 

FRA  BARTOLOMMEO  and  ALBERTINELLI.   By  Leader  Scott, 
Author  of  *'  A  Nook  in  the  A23ennines."     With  i6  Illustrations. 

VELAZQUEZ.     By  Edwin  Stowe,   M.A,,  Brasenose  College,   Oxford. 
With  many  Illustrations. 

GAINSBOROUGH  and  CONSTABLE.     By  G.  M.  Brock-Arnold, 
Hertford  College,  Oxford.     With  many  Illustrations. 

ALBRECHT  DURER.    From  recent  authorities.   By  R.  F.  Heath,  M.A. , 
Hertford  College,  Oxford.     With  many  Illustrations. 

VAN  EYCK  and  THE  FLEMISH  SCHOOL.     By  Mary  Heaton, 
Author  of  "The  History  of  Albrecht  Diirer."    With  many  Illustrations. 

GIOTTO.     By  Harry  Quilter,  M.A. ,  Trinity  Col,  Cambridge.      From 
recent  investigations  at  Padua  and  Assisi.     With  many  Illustrations. 

CORNELIUS    and    OVERBECK.      By  J.    Beavington  Atkinson, 
Author  of  "  The  Schools  of  Modern  Art  in  Germany." 


NOriCES   OF   THE    PRESS. 

1.  Froai  a  Review  in  the  Spectator,  July  5,  1S79. 

"  It  is  high  time  that  some  thorough  and  general  acquaintance  with  the 
works  of  these  mighty  painters  should  be  spread  abroad,  and  it  is  also  curious 
to  think  how  long  their  names  have  occupied  sacred  niches  in  the  world's 
heart,  without  the  presence  of  much  popular  knowledge  about  the  collective 
work  of  their  lives.  ...  If  the  present  series  of  biographies,  which  seems  to 
be  most  thoroughly  and  tastefully  edited,  succeeds  in  responding  to  the  wants 
of  modest,  if  ardent,  ait-knowledge,  its  aim  will  be  accomplished." 

2.  Reprinted  from  the  Times,  Jamaary  22,  iSSo. 

"  Few  things  in  the  way  of  small  books  upon  great  subjects,  avowedly  cheap 
and  necessarily  brief,  have  been  hitherto  so  well  done  as  these  biographies  of 
the  Great  Masters  in  painting.  They  afford  just  what  a  very  large  proportion 
of  readers  in  the-e  huirying  times  wish  to  be  provided  with — a  sort  of  con- 
centrated food  for  the  mind.     The  Liebigs  of  literature,  however,  especially 


4  Notices  of  the  Press. 

ill  that  of  the  fine  arts,  need  no  small  amount  of  critical  acumen,  much  experi- 
ence in  the  art  of  system,  and  something  of  the  bee-like  instinct  that  guesses 
rightly  where  the  honey  lies.  The  mere  *  boiling  down  '  of  great  books  will 
not  result  in  giving  us  a  good  little  book,  unless  the  essence  is  properly  diluted 
and  set  before  us  in  a  form  that  can  be  readily  assimilated,  so  to  speak,  and 
not  in  an  indigestible  lump  of  details.  The  writers  of  these  biographies  have, 
on  the  whole,  succeeded  in  giving  an  excellent  aperfu  of  the  painters  and 
their  works,  and  better  where  they  have  adhered  to  the  lives  written  by  acknow- 
ledged specialists — such  as  M.  Vosmaer  for  Rembrandt,  Passavant  for  Raphael, 
and  Dr.  Woltmann  for  Holbein.  ,  The  life  of  Holbein  is  by  the  editor,  with 
whom  the  idea  of  such  a  series  originated,  and  to  whose  great  experience  is  to 
be  attributed  the  very  valuable  copies  of  all  the  important  pictures  contained 
in  the  different  biographies.  These  have  been  selected  with  great  taste  and 
judgment,  and  being  taken  generally  from  less  well-known  works  by  the 
masters,  they  enhance  the  interest  and  add  much  to  the  practical  utility  of  the 
books.  The  chronological  lists  of  the  works  of  the  masters  are  also  very 
useful  additions." 


3.   From  Za  Chronique  dcs  Arts,  March  20,  1880. 

"  A  un  prix  d'extreme  bon  marche,  4  francs  environ,  en  petits  volumes 
joliment  cartonnes,  et  ornes  de  quince  a  vingt  planches,  la  maison  Sampson 
Low,  A^arston  et  Cie.,  a  Londres,  a  entrepris  de  publier  une  serie  de  bio- 
graphies'dek  grands  artis'fes,  resumees  d'apres  les  travaux  les  plus  recents  et  les 
plus  eslimes.  Une  bibliographie,  une  liste  des  gravures  executees  par  ou 
d'apres  I'artiste,  une  liste  de  ses  oeuvres  ou  de  leurs  prix  ;  enfin,  un  index  accom- 
pagnant  ces  resumes  confies  a  des  ecrivains  distingues  verses  dans  I'histoire 
de  I'art.  Ont  paru  ou  sont  en  preparation  dans  cette  serie  de  notices  :  Titien, 
Rembrandt,  Raphael,  Van  Dyck  et  Hals,  Holbein,  Tintoret,  Turner,  Rubens, 
Michel-Ange,  Leonard,  Giotto,  Gainsboroughj^Velazquez,  Perugin,  Reynolds, 
Landseer,  Delaroche  et  Vernet,  les  Petit  Ma*itres,  les  Peintres  de  figure  e  1 
Hollande.  S 

"  Peut-etre  la  maison  Sampson  Low,  Marston  et  Cie.  devrait-elle  tenter 
une  edition  fran^aise  de  ces  jolis  et  interessants  petits  volumes  serieusement 
etudies,  dont  la  brievete  substantielle  et  le  bon  marche  deviennent  une  benedic- 
tion  par    ce    temps    d'enormes   publications  a  prix  non  moins    enormes." — 

DURANTY. 


SAMPSOxN  LOW,  MARSTON,  SEARLE  &  RIVINGTON, 

CROWN   BUILDINGS,    188,    FLEET   STREET. 


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THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

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